During cardiopulmonary emergencies use supplemental oxygen as soon as it is available. Rescue breathing (ventilation using exhaled air) will deliver approximately 16% to 17% inspired oxygen concentration to the patient, ideally producing an alveolar oxygen tension of 80 mm Hg. During cardiac arrest and CPR, tissue hypoxia occurs because of low cardiac output with reduced peripheral oxygen delivery and a resulting wide arteriovenous oxygen difference. Additional factors that cause hypoxia are intrapulmonary shunting with attendant ventilation-perfusion abnormalities and underlying respiratory disease. Tissue hypoxia leads to anaerobic metabolism and metabolic acidosis. Acid-base imbalance frequently blunts the beneficial effects of chemical and electrical therapy. For these reasons 100% inspired oxygen (Fio2=1.0) is recommended during BLS and ACLS when available. High inspired oxygen tensions will tend to maximize arterial blood oxygen saturation and, in turn, systemic oxygen delivery (cardiac output × blood oxygen content). Short-term therapy with 100% oxygen is beneficial and not toxic. Oxygen toxicity occurs during prolonged therapy with a high Fio2. Show In patients with acute MI, supplemental oxygen reduces both the magnitude and the extent of ST-segment changes on the ECG. We recommend oxygen administered at 4 L/min by nasal cannula for the first 2 to 3 hours for all patients with suspected acute coronary syndromes (Class IIa). The use of oxygen beyond 3 to 6 hours is indicated for patients with continuing or recurrent ischemia, complicated infarcts with congestive heart failure, or arrhythmia until hypoxemia has resolved and the patient is clinically stable. Ventilatory DevicesMasksA well-fitting mask can be an effective, simple adjunct for use in artificial ventilation by appropriately trained rescuers. Masks should be made of transparent material to allow detection of regurgitation. They should be capable of a tight seal on the face, covering both mouth and nose. Masks should be fitted with an oxygen (insufflation) inlet and have a standard 15-/22-mm connector1 and should be available in one average size for adults with additional sizes for infants and children. For mouth-to-mask ventilation we recommend masks equipped with a 1-way valve that diverts the victim’s exhaled gas. Mouth-to-mask ventilation has been shown to be superior to that with bag-mask devices in delivering adequate tidal volumes on manikins. These devices are not to be confused with face-shield devices, which do not have an exhalation port. The efficacy of face shields has not been compared with that of other devices, and at this time face shields are recommended for BLS lay rescuers only (Class IIb).2 An adequate seal is best achieved with a mouth-to-mask device when the rescuer is positioned at the top of the patient’s head (Figure 1). The rescuer ventilates the victim by sealing his or her lips around the coupling adapter of the mask. Use both hands to hold the mask securely in position and maintain airway patency with head tilt. Manikin practice with masks should be required of all personnel who are likely to use a mask for mouth-to-mask ventilation. Bag-Valve DevicesBag-valve devices consist of a bag (self-inflating) and a valve (nonrebreathing). They may be used with a mask, a tracheal tube, or other alternative airway adjuncts. Most commercially available adult bag-mask units have a volume of approximately 1600 mL. This volume is much greater than currently recommended tidal volumes for CPR (10 mL/kg, 700 to 1000 mL). When the airway is unsecured (as with a mask versus a tracheal tube), the possibility of overventilation with gastric inflation, subsequent regurgitation, and aspiration becomes a significant concern. In several studies many rescuers were able to deliver adequate tidal volumes (6 to 7 mL/kg, approximately 500 mL) with a bag-valve and mask to unintubated manikins (Class IIa).2 To optimize bag-valve and mask performance, one rescuer must be positioned at the top of the victim’s head. Generally an oral airway should be inserted (see below) and, if possible, the head elevated if no concern for neck injury exists. While the head is maintained in position, deliver the selected tidal volume (preferably 6 to 7 mL/kg) over 2 seconds.3 Slow, gentle ventilation minimizes risk of gastric inflation. A bag-valve device may be used with any airway adjunct, such as tracheal tube, laryngeal mask airway, or esophageal-tracheal Combitube. Proper use of these combinations requires training, practice, and demonstrated proficiency. A satisfactory bag-valve unit should have (1) a self-refilling bag, (2) a nonjam valve system allowing for a maximum oxygen inlet flow of 30 L/min, (3) a no–pop-off valve, (4) standard 15-/22-mm fittings, (5) a system for delivering high concentrations of oxygen through an ancillary oxygen reservoir, (6) a true nonrebreathing valve, and (7) the capability to perform satisfactorily under all common environmental conditions and extremes of temperature (Figure 2). Automatic Transport VentilatorsAutomatic patient transport ventilators (ATVs) specifically designed for prehospital care and portability have been used in Europe since the early 1980s.4 Their acceptance in the United States has been slow, partly because of concerns that ventilation cannot be synchronized with external chest compression during cardiac arrest. These concerns are unwarranted. First, in unintubated patients it is easy to interpose compressions between mechanically delivered ventilator breaths. If necessary, the rescuer controlling the airway can indicate to the other rescuer when the device is triggered “ON.” Second, in intubated patients it is unnecessary to synchronize ventilation with compression. A number of ATVs are commercially available.56789 Studies comparing ATVs with self-inflating bag-ventilation devices during intrahospital transport show that both devices can maintain a satisfactory minute ventilation and appropriate arterial blood gas exchange.10111213 Bag-ventilation devices are accurate only when tidal volume and minute ventilation are constantly monitored, an impractical approach in prehospital care.14 Although not as accurate, ATVs remain effective without measures of tidal volume and minute ventilation. Studies have also revealed that ATVs are as effective as other devices used in prehospital care in intubated patients.515 In addition, studies on mechanical models and in animals demonstrate the superiority of ATVs for ventilating unintubated patients in respiratory arrest.16 Further studies evaluating the use of these devices are warranted. At the present time, ATVs are considered to provide advantages over alternative methods of ventilation:
Studies have observed improved lung inflation or absent gastric inflation when ATVs were compared with other devices, including mouth-to-mask, bag-mask, and manually triggered devices.1213 This is due to the lower inspiratory flow and longer inspiratory times (2 seconds) provided by ATVs. Disadvantages of ATVs include the need for an oxygen source and electric power. In addition, some ATVs may be inappropriate for children under 5 years of age. Because most ATVs require either an oxygen source or an electric power source, a self-inflating bag-valve device or a simple mask should always be available in case the oxygen source is depleted, or no oxygen or electric power source is available, or the ventilator malfunctions. ATVs used for prehospital care should be simple and time- or volume-cycled. Avoid pressure-cycled devices.12 Delivered tidal volumes should be relatively unaffected by changes in lung-thorax impedance (<10% change).7 Operational gas consumption should be <5 L/min. ATVs should have the following minimum features:
A demand-flow valve may be incorporated into the ATV to reduce the work of breathing should spontaneous breathing return. The valve should be able to deliver a peak inspiratory flow rate of at least 120 L/min (2 L/s) on demand. The pressure to trigger spontaneous flow should not exceed −1 to −2 cm H2O. Some ATVs allow higher preselected ventilator breathing rates. During CPR use caution in selecting ventilation rates more frequent than 10 per minute in adults or 20 per minute in children, because adequate time for exhalation is necessary to prevent air trapping and a positive end-expiratory pressure (auto-PEEP) effect. Auto-PEEP may reduce forward blood flow (ie, effective cardiac output) because pulmonary perfusion pressures are very low during CPR. Pulmonary capillary flow is easily impeded by high alveolar pressure. An appropriate exhalation time to maintain a 1:2 inhalation-to-exhalation time (I:E) ratio is necessary to minimize air trapping.17 Additional desirable features include a pressure manometer, provision for PEEP in more sophisticated ventilators, at least two controls (one for rate and one for tidal volume), and alarms to indicate depletion of oxygen cylinders, ventilator disconnect, or low battery. Directors of prehospital or transport programs need to ensure that ATVs are used only by personnel who have received adequate ATV training. Monitoring of use and complication rates is essential to ensure safe and effective use of ATVs. Oxygen-Powered, Manually Triggered DevicesOxygen-powered, manually triggered devices have been used in prehospital care for >25 years despite a paucity of high-level scientific evidence supporting their use. When used with a face mask, high inspiratory flow and pressure may cause massive gastric inflation. When used with other airway adjuncts, high flow and pressure may cause barotrauma. In an effort to limit the damage caused by these devices, in 1986 a recommendation was made to limit flow to 40 L/min. Oxygen-powered manually triggered devices are not recommended at this time (Class Indeterminate). Further in vivo studies are needed to compare their efficacy with that of bag-valve devices and ATVs. Airway AdjunctsOropharyngeal AirwaysOropharyngeal airways should be reserved for obtunded unconscious patients who are not intubated (Class IIa). Care is required in placement of the oral airway because incorrect insertion can displace the tongue into the hypopharynx and result in airway obstruction. In conscious patients oropharyngeal airways can promote retching, vomiting, or laryngospasm caused by activation of the gag reflex. Oral airways should be inserted only by persons trained adequately in their use. Oropharyngeal airways should be available in various infant, child, and adult sizes. Nasopharyngeal AirwaysNasopharyngeal airways are especially useful in patients with trismus, biting, clenched jaws, or maxillofacial injuries, which prevent placement of an oral airway (Class IIa). They should be used with caution in patients with suspected fracture at the base of the skull. In patients who are not deeply unconscious, nasopharyngeal airways are better tolerated than oropharyngeal ones. Insertion can cause damage to the nasal mucosa, resulting in bleeding. If the tube is too long, it may stimulate the laryngeal or glossopharyngeal reflexes to produce laryngospasm, retching, or vomiting. As with all adjunctive equipment, safe use of nasopharyngeal airways requires adequate training, practice, and retraining. Alternative AirwaysIn some communities tracheal intubation is not permitted, or patients are so few that practitioners obtain little experience. Alternative airways that require blind passage of the device into the airway may be simpler to master than passage of a tracheal tube under direct vision. Alternative airways include the laryngeal mask airway (LMA), the esophageal-tracheal Combitube (ETC), and the pharyngotracheal lumen airway (PTL). When used by adequately trained healthcare providers, the LMA and the ETC provide superior ventilation compared with face masks in patients in cardiac arrest (Class IIa). To achieve good outcomes with these devices, healthcare providers must maintain a high level of knowledge and skills through frequent practice and field use. Esophageal-Tracheal CombitubeThe ETC is an invasive double-lumen airway with 2 inflatable balloon cuffs that is inserted without visualization of the vocal cords. Assessment of the location of the distal orifice18 is then made, and the patient is ventilated through the appropriate opening. One lumen contains ventilating side holes at the hypopharyngeal level and is closed at the distal end; the other lumen has a distal open end with a cuff similar to a tracheal tube. When inflated the large pharyngeal balloon fills the space between the base of the tongue and the soft palate, anchoring the ETC into position, and isolates the oropharynx from the hypopharynx. The tube most commonly finds its way into the esophagus because of the stiffness and curve of the tube and the shape and structure of the pharynx. The tube is advanced until the patient’s teeth lie between 2 marks printed on the tube. The pharyngeal and distal balloons are then inflated, thus isolating the oropharynx above the upper balloon and the esophagus (or trachea) below the lower balloon. The advantages of the ETC over the face mask are similar to those of the tracheal tube over the face mask: isolation of the airway, reduction in the risk of aspiration, and more reliable ventilation. The advantages of the ETC over the tracheal tube relate chiefly to ease of training and maintenance of placement skills, because laryngoscopy and visualization of the vocal cords are not necessary for insertion of the ETC. Ventilation and oxygenation with the ETC compare favorably with those achieved with the tracheal tube. Successful insertion rates with the ETC range from 69% to 100%.19202122232425 Because successful insertion is not ensured, providers should have a strategy for airway management when they are unable to ventilate with their first-choice adjunct. Fatal complications with the ETC may occur if the position of the distal lumen of the ETC in the esophagus or the trachea is identified incorrectly. In one EMS system a retrospective review reported that the incorrect port was used for ventilation in 3.5% of cases.20 For this reason use the ETC in conjunction with an end-tidal CO2 or esophageal detector device.2627 Another possible complication from the ETC is esophageal trauma.28 Eight cases of subcutaneous emphysema were retrieved from a retrospective review of 1139 patients resuscitated with the ETC by emergency medical technicians. Four patients underwent autopsy, and 2 were found to have esophageal lacerations.29 To optimize insertion rates and to minimize complications, providers should receive adequate initial training in use of the ETC and should practice with the device regularly. To ensure optimal outcomes, we also highly recommend that EMS and other healthcare providers monitor their success rates and the occurrence of complications. Laryngeal Mask AirwayThe LMA is an adjunctive airway device composed of a tube with a cuffed mask-like projection at the distal end (see Figure 3A).30 The LMA is introduced into the pharynx (Figure 3B) and advanced until resistance is felt as the distal portion of the tube locates in the hypopharynx. The cuff is then inflated, which seals the larynx, leaving the distal opening of the tube just above the glottis, providing a clear, secure airway (Figure 3C and 3D). The LMA provides a more secure and reliable means of ventilation than the face mask.3132 Although the LMA does not ensure absolute protection against aspiration, studies have shown that regurgitation is less likely with the LMA than with the bag-mask device and that aspiration is uncommon.3334 In comparison with the tracheal tube, the LMA provides equivalent ventilation. Training in the placement and use of an LMA is simpler than tracheal intubation because laryngoscopy and visualization of the vocal cords are unnecessary for insertion of the LMA.353637 The LMA may have advantages over the tracheal tube when access to the patient is limited,38 there is a possibility of unstable neck injury,39 or appropriate positioning of the patient for tracheal intubation is impossible. Studies have examined the use of the LMA by nurses, respiratory therapists, and EMS personnel, many of whom had not previously used either an LMA or a tracheal tube. Successful insertion rates with the LMA range from 64% to 100%.25344041424344 Even when the LMA can be inserted, studies report that a small proportion of patients cannot be ventilated with the LMA. Because insertion and ventilation are not ensured, it is important for providers to have an alternative strategy for management of the airway. Providers should receive adequate initial training in the use of the LMA and should practice with the device regularly to optimize insertion rates and to minimize complications. To ensure optimal outcomes we also highly recommend that EMS and other healthcare providers monitor their success rates and the occurrence of complications. Transtracheal (Translaryngeal) Catheter VentilationIn those rare cases when airway obstruction is not relieved by any of the methods described above, additional procedures are necessary. These include transtracheal catheter or translaryngeal ventilation. Only specially trained and experienced personnel should attempt such procedures. Pharyngotracheal Lumen AirwayThe PTL is a double-lumen tube similar in structure and function to the ETC.45 The tube is inserted blindly into the pharynx, ending in either the esophagus or the trachea. Assessment of its location is then made, and the patient is ventilated through the proper lumen. In the only published study since 1992 in which use of the PTL was examined, the tube performed well but was preferred less than the ETC.21 The PTL is not currently in wide use (Class Indeterminate). Cuffed Oropharyngeal AirwayThe cuffed oropharyngeal airway (COPA) was first described in 1992.46 Although designed originally for spontaneous ventilation in anesthetized subjects, it may represent a useful adjunct during resuscitation. The device is a modified oropharyngeal airway with a distal inflatable cuff and proximal standard 15-mm connector to which a self-inflating bag can be attached. Recent data suggests that the COPA is relatively easy to use and may offer an effective method of providing an adequate airway during resuscitation by personnel not trained in more advanced techniques.47 Tracheal IntubationIn the absence of a protected airway, providing adequate lung inflations may require pharyngeal pressures sufficient to cause gastric inflation, subsequent regurgitation, and the potential for aspiration of gastric contents into the lungs.48495051 In extreme cases, gastric inflation may elevate the diaphragm sufficiently to interfere with lung inflation.5253 Therefore, as soon as practical during the resuscitative process, trained personnel should intubate the trachea or insert an alternative airway (LMA or ETC). Tracheal intubation should be preceded by preoxygenation of the patient. If the patient is ventilating spontaneously, preoxygenation is achieved by providing 3 minutes of high-flow oxygen. If spontaneous ventilation is insufficient, assist ventilation with a bag-mask device.54 Currently the tracheal tube is considered the ventilation adjunct of choice because it keeps the airway patent, permits suctioning of airway secretions, ensures delivery of a high concentration of oxygen, provides a route for the administration of certain drugs, facilitates delivery of a selected tidal volume, and protects the airway from aspiration of gastric contents or blood and mucus from the oropharynx.55 Repeated safe and effective placement of the tracheal tube, over the wide range of patient and environmental conditions encountered in resuscitation, requires considerable skill and experience. Unless initial training is sufficient and ongoing practice and experience are adequate, fatal complications may result. Multiple or unsuccessful intubation attempts may affect outcome from cardiac arrest adversely. Rates for failure to intubate are as high as 50% in EMS systems with a low patient volume and providers who do not perform intubation frequently.5657 When tracheal intubation is attempted by providers with insufficient skill, the following complications may be seen: trauma to the oropharynx, ventilation withheld for unacceptably long periods, delayed or withheld chest compressions, esophageal or bronchial intubation, failure to secure the tube, and failure to recognize misplacement of the tube. Therefore, inexperienced providers should use only those airway management devices for which they have been adequately trained. Those who perform tracheal intubation require either frequent experience or frequent retraining. EMS systems should keep a record for each provider, documenting the number of intubations performed and success rates and complications (Class IIa). Indications for tracheal intubation include (1) inability of the rescuer to ventilate the unconscious patient with less invasive methods and (2) absence of protective reflexes (coma or cardiac arrest). During the process of tracheal intubation, the maximum interruption to ventilation should be 30 seconds. If more than 1 attempt at intubation is required, adequate ventilation and oxygenation must be provided between attempts. If the patient has a perfusing rhythm, use pulse oximetry and ECG monitoring continuously during intubation attempts. Whenever possible a second rescuer should apply cricoid pressure during tracheal intubation in adults to protect against regurgitation of gastric contents and to help ensure tube placement in the tracheal orifice. Apply pressure with the thumb and index fingers to the right and left anterolateral aspects of the cricoid cartilage just lateral to the midline. Avoid overzealous pressure; it will occlude the airway and impair tracheal intubation.5859 Maintain cricoid pressure until the cuff of the tracheal tube is inflated.6061 The BURP (Backward, Upward, Rightward Pressure) technique may be useful in bringing the vocal cords into the field of vision of the intubator. Tracheal tubes should be available in a variety of sizes. They should have standard 15-/22-mm connectors and should have high-volume, low-pressure cuffs suitable for adults and older children. The size of tracheal tube required typically is 8 mm for average adult women and 8 mm for average adult men. Because of the variation in size of adults, a range of tubes should be available. A stylet should be available and may be used to assist with tracheal tube insertion by providing some stiffness to the tube and by allowing the direction of the tube to be controlled better during manipulation. When used, the stylet should not extend beyond the distal end of the tube. Another excellent device to assist with placement of the tracheal tube is the gum elastic bougie. Because of its size and flexibility, the bougie is easier to place in the trachea than a tracheal tube. Once the bougie is placed in the trachea, the tracheal tube is passed over the bougie and into position in the trachea.6263646566 Difficulties in achieving tracheal intubation usually occur because of inability to bring the vocal cords into view through the laryngoscope. Visualization is best accomplished by flexing the neck and extending the head at the atlanto-occipital joint (the “sniffing position”). Once the vocal cords are seen, the tube should be placed so that the cuff is just beyond the cords. In the average adult this position usually results in the tube lying at a depth marked on the side of the tube between the 19- and 23-cm marks at the front teeth. The cuff is then inflated with just enough air to occlude the airway (usually 10 mL). An adequate seal is confirmed by listening over the larynx while ventilation is continued and air is added to the cuff. While a normal tidal volume is delivered, air is added to the cuff just until the audible air leak around the tube disappears. Immediately after insertion of the tracheal tube, confirm placement by auscultating over the epigastrium, the midaxillary, and the anterior chest line on the right and left sides of the chest. Even when the tracheal tube is seen to pass through the vocal cords and is verified in the trachea by auscultation, make secondary confirmation of placement with an end-tidal CO2 or esophageal detection device (Class IIa).67 Extensive data shows that clinical signs of proper tube placement (such as condensation in the tube, auscultation over the lungs and abdomen, and chest rise) are not always reliable indicators of correct tube placement.6869707172 To protect against unrecognized esophageal intubation, confirmation of tube placement by an expired CO2 or esophageal detection device is necessary. In the out-of-hospital setting, unrecognized misplacement of the tracheal tube has been reported in as many as 17% of patients.73 Once the tube is placed, especially out of hospital, the location of the tracheal tube must be monitored closely. The esophageal detector device depends on the ability to aspirate air from the lower airways through a tracheal tube placed in the cartilage-supported rigid trachea. When the tube is in the esophagus, air cannot be aspirated because the esophagus collapses when aspiration is attempted. The esophageal detector device is generally reliable in patients with both a perfusing and a nonperfusing rhythm (Class IIa),74757677787980 but it may yield misleading results in patients with morbid obesity, late pregnancy, or status asthmaticus or when there are copious tracheal secretions.788182 With some of these conditions, the trachea tends to collapse. In the case of status asthmaticus, the airway secretions or the small-airway obstruction that characterizes severe asthma blocks air aspiration from the lower airways. How to Confirm Accurate Placement of Tracheal Tube: Primary ConfirmationConfirm tube placement immediately, assessing the first breath delivered by the bag-valve unit.
How to Confirm Accurate Placement of Tracheal Tube: Secondary ConfirmationA variety of electronic and mechanical devices, ranging from simple and inexpensive to complex and costly, are available for both in-hospital and out-of-hospital use. These include several models of end-tidal CO2 detectors (qualitative, quantitative, and continuous) and a variety of esophageal detector devices. End-Tidal CO2 DetectorsSeveral commercial devices measure the concentration of exhaled CO2 from the lungs. The presence of exhaled CO2 indicates proper tracheal tube placement. A lack of CO2 on the detector generally means that the tube is in the esophagus, particularly in patients with spontaneous circulation. False-positive readings* (tube is really in the trachea; device indicates in the esophagus; leads to unnecessary tube removal) may occur because CO2 delivery is low in cardiac arrest patients with low blood flow to the lungs or in patients with a large amount of dead space (eg, significant pulmonary embolus). False-negative readings (tube is really in the esophagus; device indicates in the trachea) have been reported from patients who had ingested carbonated liquids before the arrest. Continuous (usually quantitative as well) end-tidal CO2 monitors can confirm successful tracheal tube placement within seconds of an intubation attempt. These monitors can also detect subsequent tracheal tube dislodgment, an event that is more likely to occur during out-of-hospital transportation of a patient. Esophageal Detector DevicesThese devices create a suction force at the tracheal end of the tracheal tube, either from pulling back the plunger on a large syringe or compressing a flexible bulb. If the tube is in the esophagus, the suction will pull the esophageal mucosa against the distal end of the detector and prevent movement of the device plunger or reexpansion of the suction bulb. Expired CO2 detectors are very reliable in patients with perfusing rhythms and are recommended to confirm tube position in these patients (Class IIa).8384 During cardiac arrest, pulmonary blood flow may be so low that there is insufficient expired CO2, so a correctly placed tracheal tube is not identified by the expired CO2 detector. When expired CO2 is detected in cardiac arrest, it is a reliable indicator of tube position, but when it is absent, we recommend adding a second method of confirming tracheal tube placement, such as the esophageal detector device (Class IIb).8586878889 A variety of electronic as well as simple, inexpensive, colorimetric detectors that detect exhaled CO2 are available for both in-hospital and out-of-hospital use. After you confirm the position of the tube in the trachea, careful auscultation is needed to avoid inadvertent right main bronchial intubation. Once you achieve the correct positioning of the tube, record the depth of the tube as marked at the front teeth and secure the tube. Once the tube is secured, place an oropharyngeal airway or bite block. The respiratory rate during cardiac or respiratory arrest when the patient has been intubated should be 12 to 15 breaths per minute (1 breath every 4 to 5 seconds). Once a tracheal tube is in place, ventilation need not be synchronized with chest compressions. Once spontaneous circulation is restored after cardiac arrest, continue to provide 12 to 15 breaths per minute. After tube confirmation and fixation, obtain a chest x-ray to confirm proper position of the end of the tracheal tube above the carina. In patients with severe obstructive pulmonary disease with increased resistance to exhalation, care should be taken not to induce air trapping, which may result in auto-PEEP. In patients with hypovolemia this may cause a profound reduction in blood pressure. Lower respiratory rates (6 to 8 per minute) should be used, allowing more time for complete exhalation of gas. Suction DevicesBoth portable and installed suction equipment should be available for resuscitative emergencies. The portable unit should provide vacuum and flow adequate for pharyngeal suction. It should be fitted with large-bore, nonkinking suction tubing and semirigid pharyngeal tips. Several sterile suction catheters of various sizes should be available for suctioning through tracheostomy tubes, along with a nonbreakable collection bottle and a supply of sterile water for cleaning tubes and catheters. The installed suction unit should be powerful enough to provide an airflow of >40 L/min at the end of the delivery tube and a vacuum of >300 mm Hg when the tube is clamped. The amount of suction should be adjustable for use in children and intubated patients. Hand-powered suction units lack the problems associated with electric pumps and have had considerable anecdotal clinical success, although no formal evaluations have been published. An additional set of rigid pharyngeal suction tips (tonsil suction tips) and sterile, curved tracheal suction catheters of various sizes should be available. For tracheal suction, a Y-piece or T-piece or a lateral opening should lie between the suction tube and the source of the on-off suction control. The suction yoke, collection bottle, water for rinsing, and suction tube should be readily accessible to the attendant in charge of the airway. Suction apparatus must be designed for easy cleaning and subsequent decontamination. Airway SummaryAirway control using an invasive airway device is fundamental to ACLS. Determining rapidly whether the tracheal tube is in the esophagus or trachea should be one of the primary end points of training and clinical use of invasive airway techniques. This key skill is required for the safe and effective use of these devices. Training, frequency of use, and monitoring of success and complications influence the long-term impact of any device more than the choice of the specific device. *The use of the terms “false-positive” and “false-negative” when applied to a diagnostic technique can be confusing. The meanings can flip-flop depending on whether the esophageal detector device is “positive” when it detects proper tracheal tube placement, or “positive” when it detects esophageal placement. There is no widely accepted convention in discussing such tools. See the editorial on the carotid pulse check as a diagnostic test.—Editors Circulation. 2000;102(suppl I):I-95–I-104.  Figure 1. Rescuer using mouth-to-mask ventilation. Rescuer providing rescue breathing using face mask with supplementary oxygen during CPR. Rescuer is using cephalic technique (rescuer positioned at top of patient’s head). Both of the rescuer’s hands are used to hold the mask securely in position while keeping the victim’s airway open. The rescuer’s thumbs and forefingers hold the mask in place while the third, fourth, and fifth fingers of each hand lift the jaw (jaw thrust) and maintain an open airway with the head tilted (as shown). Alternatively, the thumbs and a portion of the rescuer’s palms can anchor the mask and the index and remaining fingers can lift the jaw, holding it against the mask. Figure 2. Detailed view of bag-mask. A, Rescuer provides ventilation with bag and mask attached to oxygen supply. The rescuer is using the E-C technique to hold the mask to the face (creating a “C” with the thumb and forefinger) while lifting the jaw along the bony portion of the mandible with the last 3 fingers of the same hand (these fingers make the “E”). The second hand squeezes the bag while the rescuer watches the victim’s chest to ensure that the chest rises with each ventilation. The rescuer is keeping the victim’s airway open with both a head tilt and a jaw thrust. B, Details of a bag-mask system with supplementary oxygen. The system consists of a self-refilling bag with an oxygen inlet, either no pop-off valve or (as shown) a pop-off valve that can be disabled during resuscitation to ensure delivery of adequate tidal volumes despite high pressures, and standard fittings (in this case, the bag is joined with a standard fitting to a mask). This system is capable of delivering high concentrations of oxygen because it contains an oxygen reservoir. If additional gas is required during ventilation, the gas is drawn from the oxygen reservoir rather than from room air, so a high concentration of oxygen can be delivered during ventilation. Figure 3. Laryngeal mask airway. A, LMA is an adjunctive airway that consists of a tube with a cuffed mask-like projection at distal end. B, LMA is introduced through mouth into pharynx. C, Once LMA is in position, a clear, secure airway is present. D (Anatomic detail), During insertion, LMA is advanced until resistance is felt as distal portion of tube locates in hypopharynx. Cuff is then inflated. This seals larynx and leaves distal opening of tube just above glottis, providing a clear, secure airway (see arrow).
References
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Alternative techniques to standard manual CPR have been developed to improve perfusion during CPR. These include interposed abdominal compression (IAC) CPR, high-frequency CPR, active compression-decompression (ACD) CPR, vest CPR, mechanical (piston) CPR, simultaneous ventilation-compression (SVC) CPR, phased thoracic-abdominal compression-decompression (PTACD) CPR, and invasive CPR. Each of these approaches has been evaluated initially in animal models and then in patients. For some the data is sufficient to recommend them as alternatives to standard CPR in specific clinical settings as described below. Compared with standard CPR, CPR adjuncts generally require additional personnel, training, or equipment. The added effort may increase forward blood flow during CPR from 20% to 100%—levels that are still significantly less than normal cardiac output. Maximum benefits are reported when adjuncts are begun early in the treatment of cardiac arrest,1 so their use is often limited to in-hospital settings. Adjunctive techniques produce little benefit when started late in a prolonged resuscitative effort or when performed as a last-ditch measure after failed ACLS.234 To date no adjunct has been shown to be universally superior to standard manual CPR for prehospital BLS. IAC-CPR includes manual compression of the abdomen by an extra rescuer during the relaxation phase of chest compression.5678910 The abdominal compression point is located in the midline, halfway between the xiphoid process and the umbilicus (Figure). The recommended force of abdominal compression should be sufficient to generate approximately 100 mm Hg external pressure on the abdominal aorta and vena cava and is equivalent to that required to optimally palpate the aortic pulse when the heart is beating normally.111213 Two randomized clinical trials of IAC-CPR for in-hospital cardiac arrest have shown statistically significant improvement in outcome measures.14 Results of the first trial found improved return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), 24-hour survival, and hospital discharge in 48 of 103 patients randomly assigned to IAC-CPR. Results of the second trial also found improved ROSC and 24-hour survival with IAC-CPR, although none of the patients with an initial rhythm of asystole or pulseless electrical activity survived to hospital discharge. Pooled data from these 2 randomized in-hospital studies shows a difference in 24-hour survival of 33% versus 13%. One smaller trial randomly assigned patients on arrival at the emergency department. If spontaneous circulation could not be successfully restored within 20 minutes, patients were assigned to the other therapy, with each patient acting as his or her own control. Mean end-tidal Pco2 was 17.1 mm Hg during IAC-CPR versus 9.6 mm Hg during standard CPR. Six of 16 patients were resuscitated before crossover with IAC-CPR versus 3 of 17 with standard CPR (P=0.19).10 One randomized trial of prehospital IAC-CPR showed no difference in outcome or complications.7 In this study, however, most patients randomly assigned to IAC-CPR received both standard CPR and IAC-CPR during at least some of the resuscitative attempt. Analysis of all available data for both prehospital and in-hospital resuscitations shows improvement in ROSC with IAC-CPR compared with standard CPR. When only in-hospital studies are examined, the effect of IAC becomes much greater. Data from 2 studies that examined long-term, neurologically intact survival following in-hospital resuscitations shows a positive benefit of IAC-CPR compared with standard CPR. This clinical data is consistent with a series of theoretical and animal studies documenting the “abdominal pump” mechanism for hemodynamic augmentation.1516 The safety of IAC has been reviewed.17 Increased emesis and aspiration from IAC have not been reported. In fact, there is evidence that positive abdominal pressure applied during ventilations from the beginning of an arrest reduces the rate of gastric inflation before tracheal intubation.18 In summary, randomized clinical studies have demonstrated improved outcome when IAC-CPR was compared with standard CPR for in-hospital resuscitation, but no survival benefit for out-of-hospital arrest has been shown.19 CPR-induced injuries do not appear to be more common with IAC-CPR than with standard CPR. Because of the positive hemodynamic advantages, safety record, and encouraging in-hospital results, the use of IAC-CPR for in-hospital resuscitations is recommended as an alternative intervention to standard CPR whenever sufficient personnel trained in the technique are available (Class IIb). The safety and efficacy of IAC-CPR has not been studied in patients with aortic aneurysms, pregnancy, or recent abdominal surgery. High-frequency (>100 compressions per minute) manual CPR has been advocated as a technique for improving resuscitation from cardiac arrest.20212223 Studies in some, but not all, laboratories have shown that rapid compression rates improve cardiac output, aortic and myocardial perfusion pressures, coronary blood flow, and 24-hour survival compared with standard CPR.2021 Clinical studies on the use of high-frequency CPR are limited. There is evidence for improved hemodynamics with manual but not mechanical rapid chest compression rates in patients.222324 Thus, high-frequency CPR shows some promise for improving CPR. Outcome studies in humans are needed to determine the efficacy of this technique in the management of patients in cardiac arrest (Class Indeterminate). ACD-CPR is another technique developed to improve the efficiency of CPR.162526272829303132333435 Decreasing intrathoracic pressure during the decompression phase of CPR is thought to enhance venous return and thereby “prime the pump” for the next compression. ACD-CPR is performed with a hand-held device equipped with a suction cup to actively lift the anterior chest during decompression. Early laboratory and clinical data showed that acute hemodynamic parameters such as arterial blood pressure and vital organ perfusion are superior with use of ACD-CPR compared with standard CPR.3637383940 Clinical outcome data is less consistent and suggests that technique and training are critical. The most promising results are from Paris, France, where 1-year survival rates increased from 2% (7 of 377 patients) to 5% (17 of 373 patients) with the use of ACD-CPR.41 A number of clinical studies, however, have found no significant benefit from the use of ACD-CPR.42434445 Factors associated with clinical improvement with ACD-CPR include rigorous and repetitive training, concurrent use of low- rather than high-dose epinephrine,35 use of the force gauge, and performance of CPR for a duration sufficient to prime the pump. There is some concern that the extra force and energy applied to the chest wall during ACD-CPR tends to induce a higher incidence of rib fractures than that which occurs during standard CPR.4647 One case report describes massive cardiac injury in an area of myocardial infarction with pericardial tamponade.48 In women with large breasts, the presence of a deeper sternum may cause greater force to be transmitted to the lateral rims of the ACD device, enhancing the likelihood of rib fracture.49 Design improvements, such as the inclusion of cushions, may well eliminate this problem, which should not be considered fundamental. Other published concerns include difficulties with application of the technique and increased energy expenditure by rescuers. In summary, laboratory and clinical studies to date have demonstrated that there is often measurable improvement in resuscitation hemodynamics with ACD-CPR compared with standard CPR. Clinical long-term results with ACD-CPR have been favorable (4 studies)26283050 or at least neutral (4 studies)32515253 compared with standard CPR. Complications of ACD are noteworthy but not of major concern. ACD-CPR is considered an acceptable alternative to standard CPR when rescue personnel adequately trained in use of the device are available (Class IIb). (Note: In hearings conducted several years ago the FDA concluded that the evidence did not support the labeling information included with the device. On that basis the FDA did not approve the device for sale and distribution. This conclusion does not conflict with the International Guidelines 2000 recommendations noted above: not proved effective in the out-of-hospital setting; acceptable but weak data supports in-hospital use—Class IIb.) The CPR vest was an earlier attempt to take advantage of the thoracic pump mechanism of blood flow.24545556575859 Vest CPR uses a circumferential thoracic vest, analogous to a large blood pressure cuff, that is cyclically inflated and deflated, vest CPR produces increases in intrathoracic pressure. Vest CPR has shown improved myocardial and cerebral blood flow in animals and improved peak aortic and coronary perfusion pressures during CPR in animals and humans.6061 A preliminary report of vest CPR did find improved 6-hour survival but not 24-hour survival.62 Large randomized trials have not been completed. One such trial was unfortunately interrupted secondary to a lack of continued funding.63 There is no evidence of increased resuscitation trauma with vest CPR. The present size and energy requirements for operation of the device continue to be substantial barriers for its widespread use. The size and weight of the device require that it be used for patients who can readily undergo vest CPR without substantial delay in either the hospital or emergency vehicle settings. Long-term survival studies of this approach are needed. Vest CPR may be considered an alternative to standard CPR in-hospital or during ambulance transport, because vest CPR (1) shows hemodynamic improvement in animal and clinical studies, (2) does not substantially delay starting CPR, (3) presents no significant known disadvantages, (4) has been assessed for hemodynamic effect in patients in cardiac arrest, and (5) does not interfere with defibrillation efforts. Vest CPR should be used only when there are an adequate number of well-trained, in-hospital personnel to properly perform CPR (Class IIb). The manufacturer of the vest-CPR device has not yet sought and obtained FDA permission for its distribution and sale. Mechanical devices that depress the sternum are not a substitute for manual external chest compression but rather an adjunct to be used by trained personnel to optimize compression and reduce rescuer fatigue in prolonged resuscitative efforts.64 The efficacy and safety of these devices have not been demonstrated in infants and children; their use should be limited to adults. A disadvantage of any mechanical chest compression device is the potential for interrupting chest compressions for extended periods while setting up and initiating compressions. Mechanical chest compressors can be manual or automatic. Simple, manually operated mechanical chest compressors can provide effective external chest compressions. Automatic mechanical chest compressors such as the Mechanical Thumper consist of a compressed gas-powered plunger mounted on a backboard. The devices can be programmed to deliver standard CPR in a compression-ventilation ratio of 5:1, with a compression duration that is 50% of the cycle length, or other ratios. Most animal and clinical studies have shown variable hemodynamic results compared with other CPR techniques (standard, ACD, and SVC CPR).5765 Results of the 2 most recent clinical trials both showed improved expired end-tidal CO2 compared with standard manual CPR.66 The limited clinical data has thus far shown no improvement in survival outcome when mechanical CPR was compared with standard CPR in patients with cardiac arrest. An advantage of the mechanical devices is delivery of a consistent rate and depth of compression by eliminating such variables as operator technique and fatigue. Problems related to the use of automatic mechanical chest compressors, however, include sternal fracture, expense, size, weight, restrictions on mobility, and dislocation of the plunger in relation to the sternum. Ventilation or chest compression, or both, may be inadequate when these devices are improperly positioned or operated. In addition, the weight of the compressor on the chest may limit chest wall recoil and venous return during decompression, especially after one or more rib fractures have occurred. There is no consistent measurable improvement in hemodynamics and no observed survival outcome data showing that mechanical resuscitators similar to mechanical chest compressors are superior to standard CPR. The mechanical resuscitator is an acceptable alternative to standard manual CPR in circumstances that make manual chest compressions difficult, ie, certain transport situations or lack of adequate personnel (Class IIb). The technique of SVC-CPR was conceived to take advantage of the entire thorax as a pump in producing blood flow during cardiac arrest.245557676869707172 Pressure gradients are developed between intrathoracic and extrathoracic vascular beds. Studies in experimental models showed that SVC-CPR resulted in improved peak compression (“systolic”) pressures and carotid artery blood flows.676869 On the basis of these studies, a mechanical CPR device that provides simultaneous ventilation and chest compression was developed and tested clinically. Laboratory studies showed improvement in short-term survival when SVC-CPR was compared with standard CPR in some laboratories5573 but not others.5771 Clinical studies have failed to identify any benefits of SVC-CPR. Instead the studies show standard CPR to be superior to SVC-CPR in hemodynamics2472 and survival. SVC-CPR is not currently available for clinical use. PTACD-CPR uses a hand-held device that alternates chest compression and abdominal decompression with chest decompression and abdominal compression. This innovative technique basically combines the concepts of IAC-CPR and ACD-CPR. Theoretically the combined 4-phase approach, including both compression and decompression of the chest and abdomen, could increase blood flow during cardiac arrest and CPR.16 The use of PTACD-CPR has led to hemodynamic improvement in animal and clinical studies.7475 PTACD-CPR does not substantially delay starting CPR and presents no significant known disadvantages or harm when used correctly. No clinical outcome data is available, and the device is not yet approved by the FDA (Class Indeterminate). Several mechanical devices have been developed as adjuncts to CPR. These devices do not replace basic CPR but rather are additions to the ongoing resuscitative effort. They can be combined with a variety of CPR techniques, eg, standard CPR, IAC-CPR, ACD-CPR, vest CPR, and mechanical CPR. Such adjunctive CPR devices can be recommended only after they have been shown to improve the efficacy of CPR in patients in cardiac arrest (hemodynamic changes are equal or better) and to have no significant increase in complications compared with standard manual CPR. The impedance threshold valve (ITV, or ResQ-Valve) is associated with lower intrathoracic pressure.7677 When used with a compression/decompression device, the valve is inserted into a standard tracheal tube ventilation circuit and does not disrupt CPR performance. The airway must be secured with a cuffed tracheal tube. By preventing inspiration during chest decompression, the impedance threshold valve produces more negative intrathoracic pressure, enhancing blood return to the thorax. The impedance threshold valve (ResQ-Valve) is not intended for use with standard CPR. Future clinical studies may indicate efficacy of the impedance valve during standard CPR, but no recommendation can now be made for this device as an adjunct for standard CPR (Class Indeterminate). Observations from 2 animal studies and 1 small (n=11) human trial77A showed significant improvements in hemodynamic parameters when this device was used as an adjunct to ACD-CPR. Despite better hemodynamics, no improvement in short- or long-term outcome occurred, and no complications were noted in the 11 study patients. The impedance threshold valve is acceptable as an adjunct to be used with a cardiac compression/decompression device to augment hemodynamic parameters (Class IIb). Direct cardiac compression is a special technique that may provide near-normal perfusion of the brain and heart.34787980 Experimental studies have shown that direct cardiac massage used early in cardiac arrest after a short period of ineffective closed-chest CPR can improve survival from cardiac arrest.81 Limited clinical series have shown similar beneficial hemodynamic effects with open-chest massage. Experimental and clinical studies have shown that direct cardiac massage does not improve outcome when applied late (after >25 minutes of total arrest time) in the treatment of patients in cardiac arrest.34 One prospective, nonrandomized, historically controlled series, however, did show improved ROSC with the use of open-chest direct cardiac massage.82 In the emergency thoracotomy, open-chest cardiac massage is, by necessity, associated with some morbidity. An experienced team is needed to successfully perform this technique and optimally care for the patient afterward. We do not recommend its routine use for cardiac arrest victims. In particular, it should not be used as a last effort at the end of a lengthy resuscitation treatment sequence. Outcome studies assessing the use of open-chest direct cardiac massage early in the cardiac arrest treatment sequence are needed. Specific indications for the use of open-chest direct cardiac compression in the clinical setting are changing. Previous recommendations included cardiac arrest from nonpenetrating, blunt trauma. Blunt abdominal trauma associated with cardiac arrest does not respond to invasive resuscitative efforts and should not be considered an indication. A thoracotomy is indicated for patients with penetrating chest trauma who develop cardiac arrest. Other clinical circumstances in which a thoracotomy could be considered include (1) cardiac arrest caused by hypothermia, pulmonary embolism, or pericardial tamponade; (2) chest deformity where closed-chest CPR is ineffective; and (3) penetrating abdominal trauma with deterioration and cardiac arrest. The use of open-chest direct cardiac massage can be considered under special circumstances but should not be done simply as a late last-ditch effort (Class IIb). Emergency cardiopulmonary bypass has been advocated as a circulatory adjunct for treatment of patients in cardiac arrest.838485 The bypass pump can be applied by using the femoral artery and vein without requiring a thoracotomy. Experimental studies have shown improved hemodynamics and survival when cardiopulmonary bypass is used after prolonged cardiac arrest.8384 Clinical studies have shown the feasibility of cardiopulmonary bypass in the treatment of patients in cardiac arrest from specific, potentially reversible causes (such as drug overdoses and poisonings).84 No outcome studies of significance have been done to date. Further clinical studies are needed to define the role of cardiopulmonary bypass in the treatment of patients in cardiac arrest (Class Indeterminate). Its success in the special situations of drug overdoses and hypothermic arrest may be sufficient justification alone for its use in specific hospital settings. At present there are no good prognostic criteria that clinicians can use to assess the efficacy of CPR. Clinical outcome—either resuscitation or death—is often the only way to judge the adequacy of CPR efforts. Assessment of ongoing CPR efforts would allow clinicians to modify resuscitative efforts and individualize treatment protocols for patients in cardiac arrest. Ideally clinicians could judge the value of specific adjuncts in individual patients. If a less-than-optimal response were documented, a new strategy could be attempted and individualized, depending on such real-time feedback during the resuscitative effort. Several adjuncts may be useful in the assessment of ongoing CPR efforts. Perfusion pressures. Studies in experimental models have repeatedly shown the importance of the aortic diastolic and myocardial perfusion (aortic-to–right atrial diastolic gradient) pressures during CPR for successful resuscitation from cardiac arrest.86878889909192 The aortic diastolic and myocardial perfusion pressures have been correlated with coronary blood flow during CPR.93 Much CPR research has focused on drugs or adjuncts that improve these pressures. Although the placement of arterial and central venous lines during resuscitative efforts has been accomplished by a resuscitation research team in some settings, placement of these lines is impractical in most clinical settings.8694 When arterial lines are available, the clinician should attempt to optimize the aortic diastolic and myocardial perfusion pressures during the resuscitative effort. Pulses. Clinicians frequently use the presence or absence of pulses resulting from chest compressions during the resuscitative effort to assess the adequacy of artificial perfusion during CPR. The presence of pulses does not indicate any meaningful arterial blood flow during CPR. No studies have shown the clinical utility of checking pulses during ongoing CPR. A palpable pulse represents the difference between the peak pressure and nadir pressure within a vascular bed. The important factor for perfusion of the myocardium is coronary perfusion pressure (aortic minus right atrial pressure during the relaxation phase of chest compressions). The difference in peak and nadir pressures does not correlate with perfusion. It is important to remember that because there are no valves in the inferior vena cava, retrograde blood flow may occur in the femoral vein. Palpation of a pulse in the femoral area may be misleading and may indicate venous rather than arterial blood flow. In summary, the presence of carotid pulses during CPR may indicate the presence of a pulse wave and perhaps some forward blood flow, but it cannot be used to gauge the efficacy of myocardial or cerebral perfusion from ongoing CPR efforts. Assessment of Respiratory GasesSome clinicians use arterial blood gases to gauge the efficacy of ongoing CPR efforts. Adequate oxygen concentration in arterial blood during low-flow states may not imply adequate oxygen delivery to the peripheral tissue beds. Physiologically, arterial blood gases do not reflect tissue pH and Pco2. Mixed venous gases often show severe hypercarbia despite normal arterial gases.95 No correlation between arterial blood gases and resuscitation success has been demonstrated in experimental models of cardiac arrest.96 Thus, arterial blood gases can be useful for evaluating oxygenation but should not be used to assess adequacy of CPR efforts. Studies on the use of oximetry for assessing tissue perfusion during CPR have shown that transconjunctival oxygen tension falls rapidly when a patient goes into cardiac arrest and returns to baseline when spontaneous circulation is restored.97 Oximetry, however, has not been shown to be a useful prognostic guide for predicting resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Pulse oximetry is commonly used in emergency departments and critical care units. However, measurements depend on the presence of a peripheral pulse, and the technique is unreliable when used on patients in cardiac arrest. Capnometry shows the most promise as a measurement of CPR effectiveness. Measuring expired end-tidal CO2 is a noninvasive technique for monitoring cardiac output generated during ongoing CPR.98 During cardiac arrest CO2 continues to be generated throughout the body. Once delivered to the lungs, it is excreted. The major determinant of CO2 excretion is its rate of delivery from the peripheral production sites to the lungs. If ventilation is reasonably constant, then end-tidal CO2 concentration reflects cardiac output. Capnometry measures CO2 excretion through the tracheal tube. In experimental models, end-tidal CO2 concentration during ongoing CPR correlated with cardiac output, coronary perfusion pressure, and successful resuscitation from cardiac arrest.9899100101 Clinical studies have shown that patients who were successfully resuscitated from cardiac arrest had significantly higher end-tidal CO2 levels than patients who could not be resuscitated.102103104105106 Capnometry can also be used as an early indicator of ROSC.102103104 Despite these promising studies, other variables can cause changes in CO2 excretion. Large changes in the minute ventilations will affect the end-tidal CO2 reading. Ventilations must be held relatively constant during the resuscitative effort. Administration of bicarbonate will increase CO2 excretion for several minutes before it returns to stable conditions for measurement.104105 High doses of pressor agents such as epinephrine will increase myocardial perfusion pressure but decrease cardiac output. CO2 excretion will decrease with decreased blood flow to the lungs.107108 In summary, end-tidal CO2 monitoring during cardiac arrest can be useful as a noninvasive indicator of cardiac output generated during CPR (Class IIa). Research is needed to define the ability of end-tidal CO2 monitoring to predict cardiac arrest victims who could be resuscitated with more aggressive interventions or prolonged resuscitations. Assessment of Chest CompressionThe quality of chest compressions and resuscitative effort is an important aspect of CPR. Even physicians recently trained in ACLS have difficulty meeting the recommended compression and ventilatory rates. Simple metronome guidance can correct this.109 Guaranteeing the depth of chest compressions has been even more difficult to ensure. A device called CPR-Plus has been developed to improve the rescuer’s performance of chest compression. When this device is placed on the victim’s chest and used as a baseplate for chest compressions, the rescuer obtains feedback that includes a metronome-guided rate and force of compression performed. To date, only manikin studies using the CPR-Plus device have been reported.110111 These studies showed that performance of chest compressions was significantly improved when rescuers used the CPR-Plus device rather than standard CPR alone. Animal and clinical studies, however, are needed to assess whether CPR-Plus improves or detracts from resuscitation hemodynamics in animal models and patients with cardiac arrest. Until such studies are available, informed commentary on this promising device is not possible. We do not recommend the use of CPR-Plus during CPR (Class Indeterminate). Circulation. 2000;102(suppl I):I-105–I-111. Figure 1. IAC-CPR. In practice it is more convenient when chest and abdominal compressions are performed from opposite sides of the victim. References
August 22, 2000 |
What is the best initial action by the nurse to verify the correct placement of an oral endotracheal tube after insertion?
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