What research method refers to a general set of orderly disciplined procedures to acquire evidence?

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks an in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives. Rather than by logical and statistical procedures, qualitative researchers use multiple systems of inquiry for the study of human phenomena including biography, case study, historical analysis, discourse analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology.

University of Utah College of Nursing, (n.d.). What is qualitative research? [Guide] Retrieved from https://nursing.utah.edu/research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php#what 

The following video will explain the fundamentals of qualitative research.

A scientific procedure means a procedure through which a given task related to the research and reaching the research aim is successively implemented. A scientific procedure is based on certain methodology. Its content is supported by the methodology. The meaning of a scientific procedure is to successfully reach the research aim. At the same time, a scientific procedure means implementation of research methods.

Selecting methods

1) Classification of scientific procedures according to method criteria

Scientific procedures can be classified from different points of view. The table presents one of possible classifications: the type of scientific procedure is differentiated on the basis of the prevailing type of scientific procedure, i.e. whether empiric or theoretical methods prevail in the course of scientific procedure.

Another possible classification is based on the way of explanation or interpretation of the treated issue respectively. Based on this criterion, so-called types of scientific methods are differentiated. Among them, there are explanation and interpretation methods. Explanation proceeds from the general to the individual. The general means familiar relationship (e.g. in the form of a “scientific law”); the specific is the phenomena which is being explained and which is included into a general relationship. Interpretation is a different procedure.

From the point of view of generality, the most general methods are methods referred to as general scientific methods. They can be used in scientific research universally. The most important are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparing, specifying and analogy.

An individual field of study may use its own (specific) research method. Such a method is referred to as a “specific method”, which suggests that the given method is unique and used only in the given field of study.

2) Differentiation of general scientific methods relative to explanation and interpretation

3) Classification of scientific methods which are prevailing in kinanthropology

QUANTITATIVE – based on positivism, uses deduction (Theory – forming hypotheses – observation – testing hypotheses – interpretation and generalization). It is based on theory and presupposes a research project.

QUALITATIVE – based on phenomenology, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism (interpretative paradigm), uses induction (observation – revealing regularity – conclusions – theory). It is numeric examination and interpretation. The aim is to reveal the meaning of information (narrative sociology).

Quantitative approach tests formed hypotheses, it formulates them qualitatively and it creates new hypotheses and new theory.

Examples of quantitative methods:
experiment, (quasi-experiment)
correlative examination
more specialized
normative examination
longitudinal study
time series analysis
Q-methodology
Cluster analysis
One-dimensional and multi-dimensional scaling
Operative research

Examples of qualitative methods:
Case study
Ethnography (including observation and participation observation)
Grounded theory
Examining narrations based on language examination
Ethnomethodology and conversation analysis
Discourse analysis, semiotics
Document and text analysis

Relationship between qualitative and quantitative research
K. Vlčková. Rudiments of Pedagogical Methodology

For more information and examples, see: Gavora, P. Introduction into Pedagogical Research. Brno: Paido, 2000. ISBN 80-85931-79-6. (pp. 31 – 45)

Hendl in Hendl, J. Introduction into qualitative research. Prague: Karolinum, 1997 defines the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research

Rules of qualitative research

Openness Towards tested persons, including their irregularities Towards used methods

In creating a plan when hypotheses are finalized only during research

Including subjectivity
The researcher’s identification with the examined phenomenon; this approach should be of a critical and dialectic distance

Processuality
Both social processes and communication are of a processual character; its features changes (methods, ways of researcher’s interpretation etc.).

Reflexivity
Interpretative understanding; ability to react to new and unexpected situations.

Case-focus
Attention paid to individual cases, detailed description; with the help of cases, theories are proposed and tested.

History and context
All conclusions must be validated for a given context.

Questioning determinedness
Determinism can be overcome by human interpretation. A certain system must be regarded as a guessed order within which people continuously argue while mutual communication about their intentions and expectations.

Plans of qualitative research (research conception, basic research arrangement) case study document analysis biographical research ethnographic terrain research active and critical research

evaluation

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A final thesis – Bachelor Thesis (BT) or Master Thesis (MT) – is the climax of the given form of study at university. It is a synthesis of preceding studies and it should prove the knowledge within the field of study.

Bachelor Thesis

Students should prove that they are able to study through competent literature and assess it critically, implement a project of the final thesis on an appropriate methodological level and compose a report about it. It can be based on orientation research, various kinds of research examinations or, it can only treat, order and review an overview of knowledge on a significant professional topic in a comprehensive way. Its form, however, does not differ from Master Thesis in any way.

Master Thesis

For a Master Thesis, the requirements are much harsher and aims much higher – solving independent scientific task and other attributes such as working with literature, computer data assessment, composing a professional text, more difficult defense etc. MT must show that its author is able to use appropriate research procedures, organize information into purposeful units and present the results in an acceptable style.

One of the most important tools for creating a final thesis is sufficient knowledge of the history of the known facts about the selected topic.

Conclusion

The following three criteria must be stuck to and fulfilled in order to successfully reach the aims of the final thesis project:

specifying the problem (why?)

solving the problem (how?)

what is the benefit of the results for theory and practice (for whom?)

Selecting the topic

The Faculty of Sports Studies offers two ways to select the topic. A student can select the topic out of 5 topics offered by the faculty departments (website or IS) and apply for the topic. Name of the supervisor is stated with each topic. The other way that a student may choose is to find an area of interest in IS, applies for approval at the respective department (approval of the topic, selecting the supervisor in accordance with the topic of the proposed project).

The author of the final thesis should self-critically consider his/her possibilities and abilities. Supervisors who suggest final thesis topics should make the suggested problem or issue specific in the topic. A good overview of literature is the starting point of further research possibilities for both the student and the supervisor. Without setting the project into the context of the present state of the issue, there is a danger of discovering something which has already been discovered (very often it happens that people proceed the other way round – first they do research measuring and only then, at the end, do they review literature). However, analyzing existing literature makes it possible to acquire the background for new ideas and the way which the research should be directed in.

From time to time, a question arises whether it is possible to have new topics all the time. If the student has been interested in the issue on a long-term basis, it is the best possible situation. What remains is just to find the supervisor who will guide the student. The topic of a final thesis should nearly always bring some new aspect of the given issue. Compilation may be beneficial, too, however, only if such compilation has not been elaborated before. If a compilation has already been elaborated, there is a danger of plagiarism.

According to Umberto Eco (1977), it is not considered inferior if we draw from the research by another author in our own research. For instance, medieval scholars thought too highly of ancient authors. They claimed that compared with them, they themselves are only dwarfs; however, at the same time they stressed that if a dwarf is supported by an ancient giant, he becomes “a dwarf who climbs the back of the giant” and therefore has a better view than the giant (note: a skillful dwarf can even climb the back of another dwarf). Further, this scholar offers four rules to select the thesis topic:
The topic should reflect the interests of the student and follow on his/her studies so far.
The sources necessary to elaborate the topic must be physically accessible for the student.
It should be possible for the candidate to elaborate all materials in accordance with his/her cultural standard.
Methodological presuppositions for the given research must be on such a level to correspond to the experience and present state of study of the candidate.

Adopted from the Czech Society of Young Ophthalmologists. How to (Not) Write a Diploma or Doctoral Thesis. [online] Available at: http://www.csmo.cz/other/dizert.php

At the end, the student elaborates the project in the scope of 3-5 pages of a text which must include: The description of the problem The aim of the work References Methods used to solve and elaborate the topic

Time schedule

See the Instructions to Write a Final Thesis at the website of the faculty: www.fsps.muni.cz.

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A detailed structure of an empirically-focused paper

A more detailed scheme of the structure of a final thesis of an empiric character is presented.

This is a suggestion which can be modified following the topic and context. The list of chapters and subchapters may not hold for all empirical papers. Some students may change individual chapters for different ones to make them suit the needs of the report on a performed research. The first four parts of this scheme may form the basis to elaborate the project proposal.

1. Introduction
Briefly introduces the topic to the reader. What the paper is going to be about and why it is significant. It should succeed in winning the attention of a learned reader who is however, at the same time not a specialist in the given area. The climax of the introduction is in specifying the problem.

2.Problem 2.1. Reason, significance and the necessity of the research

The initial sentence must link this chapter with the preceding section. This paragraph should make the purpose of the paper more specific. The committee expects the author to argue convincingly for the research, its potential usefulness and its being current (3-4 sentences).

2.2. Theoretical framework for the proposed research
Clarifying whether the paper framework shall be pragmatic (i.e. applied study without the necessity to use a theory), eclectically (the framework is created by several theories which are useful for the purpose of completing the task) or whether it is focused on one theory. The author must explain why. In either case, the framework must be supported by suitable theoretical literature which offers a detailed explanation of the theory.

2.3. Specifying the problem
A short paragraph; probably the most important one, though. It represents a guide to everything that follows. It is actually an agreement between the researcher and the faculty about the substance of the research. Elucidate the concept of the problem clearly. You must be supported by the introduction. State the reasons for the study, what is going to be done and what are the anticipated results.

Problem can be expressed either by a question or as a statement which depends on the researched the nature of the problem. This statement directs the whole study, communicates information about the scope of the study and, without any details, tells in what way the study shall be conducted.

2.4. What will be examined: features, hypotheses, theory, research questions
Features of a problem are stated if forming a hypothesis is not required. Features represent then the research questions. They specifically define parts of a problem and make boundaries for the whole research. Hypothesis is defined as a solution to a problem or relationship between specified variables. It is of a guess-like character until evidence is found to invalidate or validate it. By a detailed examination of both the theoretical and factual framework of the research problem, one or more hypotheses can be specified. Without forming hypotheses, the researcher wastes time working without specific focus. When forming hypotheses, formulate them properly. Use simple language and attempt to make them meet the following criteria:

a) Are there any reasons, facts, theories or experience to justify it? Is the construction of the hypothesis valid?

b) Is it possible to collect evidence and analyze it in such a way to use it to test the validity of the hypothesis? Can a hypothesis be tested?

c) Is the hypothesis related to the problem which is being solved? Is the hypothesis relevant?

Another important feature is theory. Theory explains the relationships between events and facts. It is a principle or a set of principles which explain certain phenomena. Theory can create a framework to generate hypotheses or questions or problem features. Those define research procedures, aims and the manner of data collection.

However, it is important to hint that it is not necessary to form a hypothesis if we are looking for answers to specific questions. Still, if we believe that there is some relationship which is to be verified, then, a hypothesis is the best way to show what the research will deal with. Analysis and discussion must elucidate whether the topic is best approached by defining some hypothesis, asking questions or listing features of the problem or if we choose to combine all of the three approaches.

It is important to clarify the significance of used terms: problem, research aims, research question and hypothesis.

The relationships among research variables can be described graphically to make it easier for the reader to understand the problem.

2.5. Restricting and delineating the study
Study restrictions are given by factors which can affect the result of the research but which are not controlled by the researcher. They usually depend on the fact if the research plan is well-proposed. We attempt to find and discuss all factors which could misrepresent our results. Each study has some restrictions. For instance, in a questionnaire research it is necessary to ask whether the informant actually wants to answer the questions. Study restrictions might become a problem were the researcher not aware of them.

Study delineation is given by factors which can be controlled. They delineate what is included in the research and what is not. Delineation is an integral part of the research. For example, for some reasons, we stick to examining some group only.

2.6. Terms definition
There are two reasons why defining used terms is necessary. Each word may have more meanings unless it is not explicitly defined for the purpose of communication. Commonly used words may have special meanings when used in research. Sometimes, it may be good to include operations of certain constructs and define a term using constructs. This means defining it in such a way to demonstrate how we associate certain values to the respective variable. Analyzing the use of terms must be based on papers by outstanding scientists within the given field. It is also possible to make an overview about how the terms are used and after analyzing them, choose the way which is most useful for us.

2.7. Summary

3. Overview of literature

3.1. Historical overview

3.2. Theoretical and research literature specific for the Master / Doctoral topic

3.3. Research in related areas relevant for the Master / Doctoral topic

3.4. Reviewing the validity of the available theory and research works

3.5. Summary of what is known and unknown regarding the Master / Doctoral topic

3.6. How is this study beneficial for science

4. Research methods 4.1. The basic methodological principle used

Through methodology, this part of the paper identifies research methods which are going to be used by the author (case study, experiment). A more detailed description of individual procedures shall be included in the following sections. In a separate chapter, brief characteristics of the types of research methodologies are included (see the appendix at the end of the text).

4.2. Examined population or selection
Selection means a part of population; sometimes it is referred to as a sample. It can mean people or objects (schools, classes, or performed studies in meta-analysis). We must give reasons for selecting a part of population or subpopulation and a suitable number of individuals. It must be described how the access to the subset of population will be gained. Qualitative research uses different methods to select subjects than research based on statistical examination or experiments. Neither a suitable number of subjects nor a random selection are taken into consideration, unlike in quantitative research. For instance, qualitative research uses a method of selecting an extreme case; typical case or the method of a snowball. Cases are selected with regard to generated theory, the suggestion of which is often the aim of this type of research.

4.3. Measuring techniques and methods of data collection
Description of measuring and other procedures to acquire data together with commenting on validity and reliability regarding the type of research.

4.4. Pilot study
If a pilot study is carried out, here the experienced gained is described. A pilot study leads to modifying the whole plan.

4.5. Data collection
The way of applying measuring and other procedures to gain data for a given population sample and type of research (interview, mail, over the phone).

4.6. Data analysis
Description of statistical procedures or other procedures for data analysis. If they are unusual, they must be described in greater detail. References to related professional literature must be included.

4.7. Solving unusual situations
Suggesting the solution of ethic problems. It is also possible to state here which approach shall be taken to other predictable situations which may threaten the positive result of the project.

4.8. Specific procedures
Step by step, in a chronological order, the reader is told what the research procedure shall be. This includes correspondence, proposal of questionnaires, pilot study, interview intervention performance, consultations and other activities.

4.9. Summary
A brief summary of the most important information of this chapter.

5. Results
This part begins with description of relevant material which was collected during research. It also describes the preparation of data for assessment and respective statistical or other procedures for data analysis in a specific context. Summarizing data are presented such as descriptive statistics, tables or graphs. Duplicate description of data should be avoided. Individual entries are commented on in relation to found trends, differences or specialties. Data which are not commented on should be included in appendix. Results of inference statistics (t-test, F-test, etc.) are described as well as other partial results (mean values, correlations, frequency) which are important for interpretation. The reader should not be left with numbers only; he/she should be guided through the presented material.

The material must be structured into subchapters according to meaning.

The part of qualitative research which includes results has different appearance. There are no numbers but mainly texts: environment description, fragments of interviews and the researcher’s commentary.

The researcher examines the material for new categories, configuration and topics and accompanies the material with a certain viewpoint. He/she sorts out and puts together experience of the participants and phenomena which have some characteristics in common. The results of the research are illustrated using examples from collected data.

Results can also be presented graphically.

5.1. Research plan (implementation commentary) 5.2. Data description (data, tables, graphs, descriptive statistical characteristics) 5.3. Evidence to support or reject hypotheses or research questions 5.4. Unexpected results

5.5. Summary of what has been found

6. Discussion, consequences, recommendations
The parts containing results and interpretation must be separated. The results part informas about results exhaustively and objectively. This part presents the possibility of the author to include his/her own personal opinion into assessing the results. However, such opinion must be based on precise and logical argumentation. The results are interpreted in relation to the objectives of the paper, used methods and defined hypotheses and questions. Based on the results, modification of theory or practice may be suggested. Results must be set into the context of the knowledge so far within the given scientific field or professional activity. Implications for theory and practice must be assessed separately; further research may be suggested to treat new hypotheses or to verify the results.

Ideally, the researcher repeats the aim of the study at the beginning to allow the reader to understand further explanation more easily. Then, results are summarized without expressing them numerically. The researcher also attempts to insert alternative explanation of the results if they are not in accordance with expected hypotheses. It is important that the author systematically goes through all results which are in disagreement with his/her expectations. He/she should comment on why this happened. This section should again include restrictions of the study. The author specifically examines research both methods and the selection of subjects in order to be able to comment on the influence on internal and external validity of the results. Each study has such restrictions and the author is required to state them.

At the end, the author suggests further directions of the research; however, they must be stated specifically, not only through general statements. This part is important for researchers who are interested in further research. On the other hand, other readers may also be interested in new areas of research because this elucidates what is still to be done and what still remains unknown.

6.1. Discussion 6.1.1. Conclusions drawn from the results 6.1.2. Alternative explanation of the results 6.1.3. The relationship of the results and conclusions to the knowledge and professional literature so far 6.1.4. Strengths, weaknesses and restrictions of the paper 6.2. Consequences 6.2.1. Consequences for practice or making decisions 6.2.2. Consequences for scientific knowledge within the field 6.2.3. Consequences for forming theories 6.2.4. Consequences for further research 6.3. Recommendations 6.3.1. Recommendations for further research or changes in research methodology 6.3.2. Recommendations for changes in scientific concepts or practice 6.3.3. Recommendations for changes or modification of the theoretical constructions so far 6.3.4  Recommendations related to the change in organization, procedures, practices or behavior

6.4. Summary

References

Appendices

Appendix A, B, …

This scheme may be modified to suit the context.

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Adopted from Prof. Hendl, http://www.ftvs.cuni.cz/hendl/metodologie/typy_vyzkumu.htm

There is no absolutely unified terminology to signify methodology in Master and Doctoral Theses specifically and scientific papers generally. The classification presented here is a temporary one and it does not hold true for papers in art or philosophy. It is based on analysis of textbooks on research methodologies which was carried out by Mauch and Birch (1998). They found out that every textbook usually contains several types of research methodologies which are considered important by the authors. Comparing them proved that the authors agreed only on two common methodologies. At the same time, each of the examined books contained at least one methodology which was not included in the other books. The result of their comparative work is an adjusted list of 20 types of identified methodologies together with their characteristics. Each of the presented methodologies may be used while elaborating final thesis; notwithstanding the fact that there are certainly other types as well. Moreover, two or more methodologies can be applied in a single paper at the same time. One methodology may also use procedures of a different approach. For instance, evaluation study (type 6) may be of a qualitative character (type 19). The names of the methodologies differ in different fields of study. The classification presented below does not draw on theory of science and knowledge; rather, it is based on methodologies which are really used in scientific research in practice.

Type 1: Methodological study. Studies of this type look for new approaches (methods) and their potential advantages against present approaches (methods). The contents of the study may be formed by measuring, observation, organizing, depicting or communication. Such studies often make use of development or evaluation procedures.

Example:

The advantages and disadvantages of meta-analysis while assessing the benefits of past research.

Longitudinal versus cross-sectional studies of age cohorts while examining the development of personality.

Proposal of new measuring procedure.

Type 2: Case study. The analysis of the state, development and interactions with environment of one or more individuals, groups, communities or institutions, operation units as well as projects which are observed, documented and analyzed in order to describe and explain the states they are in and their relationships to internal and external affecting factors (Hendl, 1999).

Examples:

Case study of the method of accepting students to a certain faculty.

The development of cognitive functions of three autistic children.

Renewal and development of the Sokol organization after 1989.

Type 3: Comparative study. It examines two or more existing situations in order to find out about the types, grades or causes of their similarities and differences.

Examples:

Curricula used at universities of a kinanthropological type in different countries.

Differences in the behavior of children and adults in their reactions to a situation when the family is endangered.

Type 4: Correlative-predictive study. It studies correlations among certain phenomena (variables) and it interprets the relationships. Such studies include defining to what extent a variation in a dependent variable is explained by variations of one or more independent affecting factors. The discovered relationships are used in predicting.

Examples:

The relationships between the size of the family and the age of its members to the extent to which they use the means of health care.

The relationship between social-demographic parameters of parents and the methods and intensity of motor activities of their children.

Type 5: Experiment. One or more independent variables are intentionally manipulated with, with a certain aim; the effect on the resulting (dependent) variable is being observed. The results are explained suing some theory or a theory is being tested. Random division into groups is applied (e.g. into groups with and without intervention).

Examples:

Reducing anxiety through motor activity.

The effectiveness of therapeutic procedures.

Type 6: Evaluation. It is supposed that some project is carried out in a certain way and with certain aims. The research is focused on describing current course and finding whether the given aims are being reached and what other effects are present. There are many models of evaluative research (Hendl, 1999).

Examples:

The effect of a project on mental development of disabled people.

The effects of an anti-drug project.

The effectiveness of rehabilitation consulting.

Type 7: Developmental studies. Examining changes in time of one or more values or phenomena.

Examples:

Computer and increase in information: developmental study.

The development of the ability to express oneself in writing.

Type 8: Trend analysis. It examines phenomena which change in time in order to identify the direction and size of the trend. Interpretation and prediction must be carried out.

Example:

The development of records in a given discipline.

The development of the number of sports grounds in a given area.

Type 9: Asking about approach. It examines, describes and interprets behavior, opinions and intentions of a specific group of people.

Examples:

Eating preferences of individuals in hospitals according to gender, age and region.

Political and social opinions of PE teachers.

Type 10: Condition (status). It examines representative or specified group in order to find characteristics of the object which is being observed.

Examples:

Employment of a specified group of inhabitants.

Education, duties, activities and self-reflection of one’s own condition in coaches of young athletes.

Type 11: Exploration. It explores relatively unfamiliar area in order to discover objects or phenomena or to describe them in a more detailed way, usually with the aim to understand them in a better way.

Examples:

Characteristics of how a defined community of athletes uses language for expression.

The condition of metals  under temperature around zero.

Type 12: Historical study. Individuals, institutions and activities are examined with the aim to precisely and objectively reconstruct the past, attempt to interpret the influence on the present or test certain hypothesis.

Examples:

The influence of Coubertin’s ideas on the development of the Olympic movement.

The origins and status of the Sokol movement.

Type 13. Modeling. Proposal of a system which represents reflecting a natural system into an artificial system. It includes examining the suitability of a model and its use in examining a natural system.

Examples:

Biomechanical models for exploring the movement of human body.

Mathematical models for exploring economic systems.

Type 14: Proposal and demonstration. Proposing, describing and giving reasons for new systems in economics, school system or health care system, proposing educational projects, instruction material, methods of illness monitoring, suggesting therapies and general type of training plan etc. This type is accompanied with minimum formative evaluation.

Examples:

Proposing a curriculum of physical education for children between the ages of one and three.

Proposing training with the aim to increase explosive force in a certain type of sport or athlete.

Type 15: Meta-analysis. A procedure to combine the results of research on measured values of an uncertain type, understanding its variance and specifying possible mean magnitude of the effect. It is gained by assessing results from respective literature and testing hypotheses.

Examples:

The influence of motor activities on health.

Assessing examining the results of judging certain therapy by different teams.

What is the evidence that air pollution affects the incidence of a certain illness.

Type 16: Review and analysis. Qualitative overview of the knowledge in a given field and attempt to make a synthesis with a certain focus.

Examples:

The development of knowledge about the influence of sports on the process of socialization of an individual. Highlighting deeply and insufficiently explored areas and attempt to make a theoretical synthesis.

The approaches to treat given illness so far. Recommendations for practice. Highlighting weak points and recommended directions of further exploration.

Type 17: Theoretical studies. It suggests and develops theoretical economical and apposite explanation of a certain class of phenomena.

Examples:

Theory of intellectual development.

Theory of motor projects.

Type 18: Analytic study. Gathering certain sets of data (documents) or carrying out studies with the aim to recognize and explain principles which can control certain types of acting and actions. Among special sub-types there are: micro- and macro-analyses and analysis of political measures.

Examples:

Coping with extreme types of human acting in emergency wards in hospitals.

Employing disabled secondary school students in economically less-developed areas.

Type 19: Qualitative study. It is a general style or form of research rather than specific methodology. In reality, qualitative research makes use of a large number of methodologies and approaches which can be used in researches of other types.

Example:

Exploring the development of a physiotherapist’s opinions on his/her contentedness with the job and the extent to which he/she can apply acquired knowledge; exploring is done with in-depth interviews of a small number of individuals which take place a year after finishing their studies. The interviews are being repeated after a certain period.

Type 20: Quasi-experiment. Comparing groups while allocation has not been random. Only partial check of violating internal validity can be done. It can be applied in situations when it is not possible to perform a true experiment for economic or ethic reasons.

Example:

a) All examples stated with type 5 (Experiment). Here, however, some prescribed procedures which are connected to a true experiment cannot be performed.

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Research starts with delineating the research problem, i.e. what we want to solve and what questions we want to answer.

It is not only forming the problem but also its selection which presupposes experience and overview in the given area. The research problem should ripe and appear gradually. The final form of the problem must be preceded by studying literature and mapping what has already been found out and how.

It is advisable to form the research problem as a question. It helps to decide about the way of research. The whole research then presents an answer to the question.

After the problem has been delineated, it is necessary to define basic terms. Dictionaries and encyclopedias are used to define terms (e.g. for pedagogy it is Průcha, Walterová, Mareš: Pedagogical Dictionary, 2001). Terms must be defined in such a way so that they are allowed to be found and measured. They are operation term definitions such family, quality of life, school maturity or indirect learning strategies. For instance, family is a very broad term; everyone imagines a different meaning. It is necessary to define the term in such a way to be able to work with it.

THE MOST FREQUENT MISTAKES WHEN FORMING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

The author specified the topic (area), not the research problem

The problem specification is too broad. What has been specified is only the area, not what we want to explore and reach.

Example of a mistake: “Problematic teaching of biology”

It is not obvious what is going to be explored: whether the characteristics of the teacher (age, gender, experience) can affect the use of problematic teaching; or the procedures of the teacher in problematic teaching. Or how the students accept this teaching method etc.

The research problem must be formed precisely. The title of the paper can be broad; still, it must point out what is going to be explored. It must also reflect the contents of the paper. A broader title can be more comfortable for the reader’s orientation. It will be specified in greater detail anyway.

The research problem is not of a value or does not make sense

Exploring the problem does not deepen the knowledge on the issue and does not bring anything new.

Example of a mistake: “Does home reading help to develop a student?”

The answer is clear – yes, it is not necessary to prove this. To make it possible to further explore the problem, it must be divided into smaller sub-questions (conditions under which it is performed, the aspects of personality which should be developed…). It must also be specified what kind of literature is meant.

The research problem is trivial, too simple

The answer to the problem is either “yes” or “no”. The problem must be divided into several sub-questions – problems usually cannot be solved with easy answers like “yes” or “no”.

Example of a mistake: “Are elementary school teachers creative?”

As the answer is either “yes” or “no”, it does not advance our knowledge. It is necessary to answer many questions: How is creativity in teaching of a specific teacher manifested? What is its influence on students? In what situations can teaching be creative and when is it routine? Etc.

TYPES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

It is good to know 3 basic types of research problems. It will assist in forming them. The type of a problem also determines the use of research and statistical methods.

descriptive

A question of the following type is asked: “What is it like?” Then, we find out about and describe a situation, condition or occurrence of a phenomenon.

Methods: questionnaire, observation, interview, scaling…

Example: What is the proportion of individual teaching activities of teachers of civics at elementary schools?

=> frequency, duration of activity, the proportion of both (observation)

Example: What is the approach of parents whose child is about to fail towards to the teacher and school management?

 => scale (assessing different aspects of the teacher’s professionalism – qualification, teaching style, evaluation…)

Diagnostic-evaluative descriptive problem (for practice, it does not develop theory)

Example: What study results did students of alternative schools reach?

=> didactic tests

Example: What percentage of children from minority groups attends schools in this region?

relative

Two or more phenomena or agents are related. We ask if there is a relationship among the explored phenomena and how close the relationship is. With this kind of problem, it cannot be stated exactly which phenomenon is the cause of which. For instance, questionnaire cannot find out whether a certain opinion was caused by reading a magazine, or whether the student’s opinion led to reading a certain magazine. The cause can be found only in things which are absolutely clear – when we know it from the outside but not because of data. Causal relationships can be verified by experiments.

Statistics: correlation, factor analysis…

Example: What is the relationship between the self-conception of a student and his/her results in key subjects at a secondary school?

Example: What is the dependency between the result of an entrance test and the final result of studies at university?

Example: What is the relationship between child drug addiction and the socio-economic status of the family?

causal

It finds out about the cause which led to a certain consequence; about causal relationships.

Experiment with two groups of persons is carried out.

Statistics – finding the significance of differences: Student’s t-test, chi square…

Example: Is nondirective educational style more effective in creating positive opinions of students on a teacher than a directive one?

Example: What is the influence of a change in break routine at a primary school on students’ ability to work?

SUMMARY:

Most research topics allow us to form research problems of all three types.

Example: The teacher’s use of praise.

Descriptive: What kind of praise do teachers use?

Relative: What is the relationship between the kind of praise used by a teacher and the students’ performance?

Causal: What is the effectiveness of a postponed praise on the students’ performance in comparison with immediate praise?

Scientific hypotheses may be formed only for relative and causal research problems. Why? Since hypothesis is defined as a statement about a relationship between two variables.

The easiest one (time, means) is descriptive research problem. Then it is followed by relative and only then by causal.

On the other hand, causal problem is of the greatest value in pedagogical theory. It is then followed by relative and only then by descriptive problem.

Variables

A variable is a phenomenon, quality, condition or agent which is being explored; e.g. age, knowledge, IQ, the length of practice or behavior. It is a unit of exploration which can get different values which must be defined. For instance, gender is of two values (male – female); for our purposes, marital statues can be only of two values (single – married), at a different time, however, it can be of four values (divorced, widowed), still at a different place even more (separated).

Variables must be turned into operations – defined operatively – so that they could be measured, found and observed. For instance, the ability to speak a foreign language can be defined as a result of a known test, interest in history as a number of questions asked by a student in a history lesson, the number of books on history read by a student or a membership in a history interest club. Therefore, we do not say “what it is” but how we are going to observe it.

It is advisable to differentiate between two main kinds of variables; it is important also for statistical data assessment. With measurable variables, it is possible to define number, degree of a certain phenomenon or quality. Variables get values within a certain range (between – worse; more – less; sooner – later). Example: knowledge, number of mistakes in spelling, favorability of a subject on a scale, a neurotic child according to Eysenck questionnaire.

Categorical variables cannot be quantified; they only can be divided into classes, categories. They can be dichotomy variables (sex: female – male; test result: passed – failed) or not (marital status, grade: 1-9, school subject, method, parents’ education).

Independent variable – it is a cause of a change in the other variable.

Dependent variable – it is the one which changes being affected by a different variable. It is dependent on the one which affects it (independent variable). Example: students’ results (they change under the influence of teaching style).

Hypotheses

The research problem forms the basic focus of the research; however, it does not communicate sufficient information to direct the research. Therefore, hypotheses are needed as they are more specific. Hypotheses divide the research problem into smaller parts, they control the whole structure of the research, and they are validated or invalidated.

Example: Formulating research problem

What is the influence of a teaching style on the student’s performance?

Formulating hypotheses:

H1 Elementary school students’ approach to a subject is more positive when it is taught by a teacher with the non-directive teaching style than by a teacher with the directive teaching style.

H2 Elementary school students have lesser knowledge in a subject which is taught by a teacher with the non-directive teaching style than in a subject taught by a teacher with the directive style.

Hypothesis is a scientific presupposition; it is drawn from a theory (which requires a lot of reading and thinking). It is thus no any presupposition. Rarely is it based on personal experience and general knowledge; this happens only when nothing has been known in such matter so far and the paper presents the first action concerning the issue

Hypotheses broaden our knowledge and learning – they test parts of a theory empirically. On the basis of new findings, theories can be broadened or modified.

Research is time-, effort- and money-consuming. Therefore, it is important to define such hypotheses which are worth the effort, i.e. worthwhile hypotheses. The most valuable are creative hypotheses which are able to advance our knowledge.

Hypothesis controls the research; therefore, it is not possible to start with collecting data and form hypotheses only during collecting or even when it is finished!

Of course, there is a kind of research – descriptive, exploration – which is absolutely correct and still it does not relate variables to anything and thus it does not work with hypotheses as they were described above. Such research is used mainly when the theory about the given issue is poor and there is nothing to stick to, the problem is only being mapped and own theory is being created. In such a case, hypotheses are formed only after making the theory a system.

Forming hypotheses

To form hypotheses correctly, it is necessary to carefully follow three basic requirements (rules) for formulating hypotheses (violating of the rules is the most frequent cause of mistakes):

Hypotheses are statements and they must be formulated as declarative sentences. They must not be confused with research question (problem).

Hypotheses must express a relationship of at least two variables. Such relationship between two phenomena must be clearly and explicitly expressed. It is good to compare and verify variables: differences (more, more often, stronger, higher, different), relationships (positive, negative relationship, correlation) or consequences (the more – the less, if – then, both – and).

Hypothesis must have the ability to be tested. It must be possible to validate or invalidate a hypothesis. Variables must have the ability to be measured or classified (age: 16, 17…; sex: female, male; popularity: degree of popularity on a scale; quality of life – it is necessary to find life quality indicators).

Correct examples:

Differences: Schoolchildren in the second grade like school education more than students schoolchildren in the fifth grade.

Studying in a group supports the increase in students’ performance.

Relationships: There is a positive relationship between a child’s intelligence and the education of his/her parents.

Consequences: The more the teacher praises the students, the more the students learn.

The more cohesive the group is, the bigger is its influence on individual members.

Correct examples (the hypotheses expresses the relationship of two variables):

Girls perform better in language tests than boys.

(Two levels of one variable – sex)

Authoritative style of raising children develops creativity less than democratic style.

(Variables: style of raising children (democratic vs. Authoritative) and creativity – would be measured with a test)

The most frequent mistakes in forming hypotheses:

Formulation is too complicated and long. Complicated scientific formulations make the situation only worse: stick to the rule than less is sometimes more; hypothesis must be clear, easy and simple.

Hypotheses contain too many variables the relationship between which are not clear.

More hypotheses which do not belong under any main hypothesis; insufficient relationship between the hypotheses. It is often cause by insufficient overview in literature, ignorance of the findings so far or inexperience in dealing with hypotheses.

Hypothesis was not validated which was caused by improper selection of the hypothesis. The theory on which the hypothesis was based may not have been suitable, it should have been based on a different theory. However, sometimes a theory may be valid only under certain conditions (age, size of the city, quality of the teacher) and it is very much appreciated if this is specified.

Example of an incorrect hypothesis:

Music activity of elementary schoolchildren in the 2nd-7th grades increases when a set of music activities anchored in current conception of teaching is fully used when using the set, teachers activate students in a creative way, using methods, forms and means respective of their age which support effective development of their relationship to music and the personalities of the students generally.

Even segmenting the complicated sentence does not help: none of the statements contain two variables:

If the set of music activities is fully used according to the current conception of teaching, music activity of the students increases.

Teachers working in accordance with the current conception of teaching, activate students in a creative way.

When teaching music activities, the teachers used methods, forms and means respective of the students’ age.

These music activities support effective music development of a student.

These music activities support effective music development of students generally.

Example of correct forming of more hypotheses:

H: When teaching reading according to the book by Virgovičová, fewer mistakes appear in children’s reading than when teaching according to the book by Němčíková-Němčík.

H1: ………..fewer mistakes in reading letters………

H2: …………………………………............... syllables ……

H3: …………………………………............... sentences …..

Examples of incorrect formation:

Czech daily press pays little attention to issues connected with schools.

(Comparison must be done. “Little” cannot be measured, press – one, how can we define attention?? Number of articles, their significance, number of fundamental ideas in the text? – the length does not need to reflect this.)

Good teachers make use of humor in teaching.

It is a statement which must be transformed into hypotheses (express relationship): Teachers who make use of humor in teaching get better teaching results than teachers who do not.

There are more students from secondary “grammar” schools at universities than students from other types of secondary schools.

Clearly and explicitly define the relationship between two variables, find a suitable formulation! The meaning here is biased: it can be the number of students in a classroom; it can mean a context whether  they are admitted to university; a number of students who have been admitted to university; it can mean that the number of students is not the same => the initial groups are not the same.

We suppose that suitable forms of cooperation between school and parents are not always used.

(2 variables – frequency, form of cooperation)

Rephrase: Suitable forms of cooperation between school and parents are less frequent than unsuitable ones. (Then it would be necessary to define which forms are suitable and which are not – form it as an operation.)