What is the term for situation in which an operant is followed by the subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus?

One of the many different ways in which people learn is through a process called operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning. Reinforcement in operant conditioning involves strengthening an action by associating it with a consequence.

If you want a child to clean their room, for instance, you may reinforce this behavior by giving them an allowance every time that they do. By getting the same consequence (money) each time they perform the action (cleaning the room), they begin to learn this behavior.

The type of reinforcement used can play an important role in how quickly a behavior is learned and the overall strength of the resulting response.

In operant conditioning, "reinforcement" refers to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Psychologist B.F. Skinner coined the term in 1937,

For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (a reinforcer) immediately after a child puts away their toys (the response). By reinforcing the desired behavior with praise, the child will be more likely to perform the same action again in the future.

Reinforcement can include anything that strengthens or increases a behavior. In a classroom setting, for example, types of reinforcement might include giving praise, letting students out of unwanted work, or providing token rewards, candy, extra playtime, or fun activities.

Reinforcements can be either primary or secondary.

Primary reinforcement, which is sometimes referred to as unconditional reinforcement, occurs naturally. Primary reinforcers often have an evolutionary basis in that they aid in the survival of the species. As such, they don't require learning in order to work.

Examples of primary reinforcers include:

Genetics may also play a role in primary reinforcement. For example, research suggests that people may pick their mates, in part, due to specific genetic traits that they deem to be more preferable.

Secondary reinforcement involves stimuli that have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus. This is also known as conditioned reinforcement.

For example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be used as primary reinforcers. The sound of a clicker can be added with the praise and treats as a secondary reinforcer. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone begins to work as a reinforcer.

In operant conditioning, there are two different types of reinforcement (beyond primary and secondary reinforcements). Both influence behavior but in different ways. The two types are:

• Positive reinforcement: This involves adding something to increase response, such as giving a piece of candy to a child after they clean their room.
• Negative reinforcement: This involves removing something to increase response, such as canceling a quiz if students turn in all of their homework for the week. By removing the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the teacher hopes to increase the desired behavior (completing all homework).

While these terms involve the words positive and negative, it's important to note that Skinner did not utilize these to mean "good" or "bad." Instead, think of what these terms would mean when used mathematically.

Positive is the equivalent of a plus sign, meaning something is added to or applied to the situation. Negative is the equivalent of a minus sign, meaning something is removed or subtracted from the situation.

Here are a few real-world examples of how reinforcement can be used to change behavior.

During practice for your office softball team, the coach yells, "Great job!" after you throw a pitch. Because of this, you're more likely to pitch the ball the same way again. This is an example of positive reinforcement.

Another example is while at work, you exceed your manager's sales quota for the month, so you receive a bonus as part of your paycheck. This makes it more likely that you will try to exceed the minimum sales quota again next month.

You go to your doctor and get your yearly flu shot to avoid coming down with the flu. In this case, you are engaging in a behavior (getting a shot) to avoid an aversive stimulus (getting sick). This is an example of negative reinforcement.

Another example is if you slather aloe vera gel on a sunburn to prevent the burn from hurting. Applying the gel prevents an aversive outcome (pain), so this is an example of negative reinforcement. Because engaging in the behavior minimizes an aversive outcome, you will also be more likely to use aloe vera gel again in the future.

How and when reinforcement is delivered can affect the overall strength of a response. The following qualities can measure and describe response strength:

• Accuracy: Did the reinforcement deliver the desired response?
• Duration: How long did the response continue?
• Frequency: How often did the response occur?
• Persistence: Did the response occur each and every time?

The timing of when a reinforcer is presented can be manipulated. During the early stages of learning, continuous reinforcement is often used. This involves reinforcing a response each and every time it occurs, such as giving a puppy a treat every time it pees outside.

Once a behavior has been acquired, a partial reinforcement schedule can be used. The four main types of partial reinforcement include:

Reinforcement plays a vital role in the operant conditioning process. When used appropriately, this can be an effective learning tool to encourage desirable behaviors and discourage undesirable ones.

It's important to remember that what constitutes reinforcement can vary from one person to another. In a classroom setting, for example, one child may find a treat reinforcing while another might be indifferent to such a reward. And if a child only receives attention from their parents when being scolded, that attention can actually reinforce the misbehavior.

By learning more about how reinforcement works, you can gain a better understanding of how different types of reinforcement contribute to learning and behavior.

Negative reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. In negative reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus.

Negative reinforcement works to strengthen certain behaviors by removing some type of aversive outcome. As a form of reinforcement, it strengthens the behavior that precedes it. In the case of negative reinforcement, it is the action of removing the undesirable outcome or stimulus that serves as the reward for performing the behavior. 

Aversive stimuli tend to involve some type of discomfort, either physical or psychological. Behaviors are negatively reinforced when they allow you to escape from aversive stimuli that are already present or allow you to completely avoid the aversive stimuli before they happen.

Deciding to take an antacid before you indulge in a spicy meal is an example of negative reinforcement. You engage in an action in order to avoid a negative result.

One of the best ways to remember negative reinforcement is to think of it as something being subtracted from the situation.

When you look at it in this way, it may be easier to identify examples of negative reinforcement in the real world.

Looking at some real-world examples can be a great way to get a better idea about what negative reinforcement is and how it works. Consider the following situations:

• Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen (the behavior) to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus).
• You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen (the behavior) to avoid getting into a fight with your roommate (removal of the aversive stimulus).
• On Monday morning, you leave the house early (the behavior) to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for work (removal of an aversive stimulus).
• At dinner time, a child pouts and refuses to eat her vegetables for dinner. Her parents quickly take the offending veggies away. Since the behavior (pouting) led to the removal of the aversive stimulus (the veggies), this is an example of negative reinforcement.

Can you identify the negative reinforcer in each of these examples? Sunburn, a fight with your roommate, being late for work, and having to eat vegetables are all negative outcomes that were avoided by performing a specific behavior. By eliminating these undesirable outcomes, preventive behaviors become more likely to occur again in the future.

Positive reinforcement is a type of reinforcement that involves giving someone the desired reward in response to a behavior. This might involve offering praise, money, or other incentives.

Both positive and negative reinforcement work to increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future. You can distinguish between the two by noticing whether something is being taken away or added to the situation. If something desirable is being added, then it is positive reinforcement. If something aversive is being taken away, then it is negative reinforcement.

One mistake that people often make is confusing negative reinforcement with punishment. Remember, however, that negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative condition to strengthen a behavior.

Punishment involves either presenting or taking away a stimulus to weaken a behavior.

Consider the following example and determine whether you think it is an example of negative reinforcement or punishment:

Luke is supposed to clean his room every Saturday morning. Last weekend, he went out to play with his friend without cleaning his room. As a result, his father made him spend the rest of the weekend doing other chores like cleaning out the garage, mowing the lawn, and weeding the garden, in addition to cleaning his room.

If you said that this was an example of punishment, then you are correct. Because Luke didn't clean his room, his father punished him by making him do extra chores.

If you are trying to distinguish between negative reinforcement or punishment, consider whether something is being added or taken away from a situation.

If an unwanted outcome is being added or applied as a consequence of a behavior, then it is an example of punishment. If something is being removed in order to avoid or relieve an unwanted outcome, then it is an example of negative reinforcement. 

Negative reinforcement can be an effective way to strengthen the desired behavior. However, it is most effective when reinforcers are presented immediately following a behavior. When a long period elapses between the behavior and the reinforcer, the response is likely to be weaker.

In some cases, behaviors that occur in the intervening time between the initial action and the reinforcer are may also be inadvertently strengthened as well.

Some experts believe that negative reinforcement should be used sparingly in classroom settings, while positive reinforcement should be emphasized.

While negative reinforcement can produce immediate results, it may be best suited for short-term use.

Negative reinforcement can have a powerful effect on behavior, but it tends to be most useful when used as a short-term solution. The type of reinforcement used is important, but how quickly and how often the reinforcement is given also plays a major role in the strength of the response. The schedule of reinforcement that is used can have an important impact not only how quickly a behavior is learned, but also on the strength of the response.

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