Metode pidato sing tanpa nganggo persiapan luwih dhisik diarani

Formula ditulis paling wiwitan kanggo bubuk mesiu, saka Wujing Zongyao taun 1044 Masehi.

Bubuk mesiu yaiku sing pertama bledosan wis dikembangake. Paling misuwur minangka salah sawijining "Papat penemuan hebat"saka Cina, ditemokake nalika pungkasan Dinasti Tang (Abad kaping 9) nanging cathetan paling wiwitan saka rumus tinulis katon ing Dinasti lagu (Abad kaping 11). Pengetahuan babagan bubuk mesiu nyebar kanthi cepet ing saindenging Asia, Timur Tengah lan Eropa, bisa uga asil saka Mongol nelukake sajrone abad kaping 13, kanthi formula tertulis katon ing taun 1267Opus Majus risalah dening Roger Bacon lan risalah 1280 dening Hasan al-Rammah. Iki digunakake ing perang kanggo sawetara efek saka paling abad kaping 10 ing gaman kayata panah geni, bom, lan ing tombak geni sadurunge katon saka bedhil. Nalika tombak geni kasebut pungkasane diganti karo bedhil, senjata bubuk mesiu liyane kayata roket lan panah geni terus digunakake ing China, Korea, India, lan pungkasane Eropa. Bom uga ora nate mandheg lan terus maju dadi modern granat, tambang, lan alat peledak liyane. Bubuk mesiu uga digunakake kanggo tujuan non-militer kayata kembang api kanggo hiburan, utawa bahan peledak kanggo tambang lan tunneling.

Évolusi saka bedhil nyebabake pangembangan artileri sajrone abad kaping 15, dirintis negara-negara kayata Kadipaten Burgundy. Senjata api teka dominasi perang modern awal ing Eropa ing abad kaping 17. Dandan bertahap saka meriam nembak babak sing luwih abot kanggo pengaruh sing luwih gedhe tumrap benteng sing nyebabake penemuan bèntèng lintang lan ing bastian ing Jagad kulon, ing endi tradisional tembok kutha lan kedaton wis ora cocog kanggo pertahanan. Panggunaan teknologi bubuk mesiu uga nyebar ing saindenging jagad Islam lan kanggo India, Korea, lan Jepang. Sing diarani Kakaisaran bubuk mesiu saka jaman modern awal kapérang saka Kakaisaran Mughal, Kekaisaran Safavid, lan Kakaisaran Ottoman.[verifikasi perlu]

Panganggone bubuk mesiu ing perang sajrone abad kaping 19 nyuda amarga panemuan bubuk tanpa asap. Bubuk mesiu asring diarani saiki minangka "bubuk ireng"kanggo mbedakake karo propelan sing digunakake ing senjata api kontemporer.

Wiwitane Cina

Panah geni nggunakake kantong bubuk mesiu kanggo ngobong. Kaya sing digambarake ing Huolongjing (c. 1390).

Gambar saka panah geni dikenal minangka "panah mesin gaib" (shen ji jian 神 機 箭) saka Wubei Zhi (1621).

'Gagak mabur ilahi gagak' (shen huo fei ya), bom roket swiwi aerodinamis saka Huolongjing

Bubuk mesiu ditemokake ing Cina sawetara nalika milenium pisanan Masehi.[2] Referensi paling wiwitan babagan bubuk mesiu muncul ing 142 Masehi nalika taun Wangsa Han Wétan nalika ing alkemis Wei Boyang nyerat babagan zat kanthi sifat bubuk mesiu. Dheweke nerangake campuran telung bubuk sing bakal "mabur lan nari" kanthi kuat Cantong qi, utawa dikenal minangka Buku Kepemimpinan Tiga, a Wong Tao teks babagan subyek alkimia.[3][4] Sanajan ora bisa ngerti manawa dheweke sejatine nuduhake bubuk mesiu, ora ana bahan peledak liyane sing dingerteni para ilmuwan sing kasusun saka telung bubuk.[3]

Sanajan meh dudu tujuwane nggawe senjata perang, alkemis Taois terus duwe peran utama ing pangembangan bubuk mesiu amarga eksperimen karo belerang lan uyah asin melu nggoleki urip langgeng lan cara ngirim siji materi menyang materi liyane.[3] Sejarawan Peter Lorge nyathet manawa ana asosiasi bubuk mesiu awal karo Taoisme, iki bisa uga minangka sejarah sejarah lan asil saka pengawetan teks sing ana gandhengane karo Taoisme, tinimbang dadi subyek sing diwatesi mung karo Tao. Pencarian Taoist kanggo elixir urip narik akeh pelindung kuat, salah sawijine yaiku Kaisar Wu saka Han. Salah sawijining eksperimen alkimia sing ana gandhengane yaiku dadi panas 10% belerang lan 75% uyah kanggo ngowahi.[3]

Referensi sabanjure bubuk mesiu kedadeyan ing taun 300 sajrone Dinasti Jin (265–420).[4] Filsuf Taois jenenge Ge Hong nyerat bahan-bahan bubuk mesiu ing karya sing isih ana, sing sacara umum dikenal minangka Baopuzi ("Guru sing Nganggo Kesederhanaan"). "Bab Inner" babagan Taoisme ngemot cathetan eksperimene karo saltpeter panas, resin pinus, lan areng ing antarane bahan-bahan karbon liyane, nyebabake bledosan, sing umume sejarawan ngakoni minangka bubuk bubuk wiwitan.[7] Ing taun 492, ahli alkimis Tao nyathet manawa saltpeter, salah sawijining bahan sing paling penting ing bubuk mesiu, bisa diobong kanthi semangat ungu, saengga upaya praktis kanggo ngresiki zat kasebut.

Referensi pertama sing dikonfirmasi babagan apa sing bisa dianggep bubuk mesiu ing China kedadeyan luwih saka telung atus taun sabanjure sajrone dinasti Tang, pisanan ing formula sing ana ing Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue (太 上 聖祖金丹 秘訣) ing taun 808, banjur udakara 50 taun mengko ing teks Taoist sing dikenal minangka Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe (真 元 妙 道 要略). Formula pertama yaiku gabungan saka enem bagean belerang nganti nem bagian uyah asin kanggo salah sawijine ramuan kelahiran. Teks Taois ngelingake babagan macem-macem formula sing mbebayani, salah sawijine cocog karo bubuk mesiu: "Sawetara duwe panas belerang, realgar (disulfida arsenik), lan garam asin karo madu; asap [lan kobongan] nyebabake, tangan lan pasuryane wis kobong, lan kabeh omah saya kobong. " Ahli alkimia ngarani obat penemuan iki ("huoyao" 火藥), lan istilah kasebut terus diarani bubuk mesiu ing Tiongkok nganti saiki, ngelingake warisane minangka asil saka panelusur obat sing umure nambah umure.[9]

Formula kimia bubuk paling dhisik sing isih ana wiwit taun 1044 awujud manual militer Wujing Zongyao, uga dikenal ing basa Inggris minangka Bahan Penting Lengkap kanggo Klasik Militer, sing ngemot koleksi factoid ing gegaman Cina. Ing Wujing Zongyao dadi gudang senjata kuno utawa nyenengake, lan iki uga ditrapake ing bubuk mesiu, nuduhake manawa wis digawe senjata sadurunge sadurunge nggawe senjata sing saiki bakal dianggep senjata api konvensional. Jinis senjata bubuk mesiu iki nganggo macem-macem jeneng aneh kayata "klub incendiary mabur kanggo ngasorake setan", "bola geni caltrop", "bom sulap pasir terbang sepuluh ewu", "sarang lebah gedhe", "kobongan bom sing ora bisa dicegah "," bata geni "sing ngeculake" ngulu mabur "," tikus mabur "," manuk geni ", lan" sapi geni ". Pungkasane, dheweke menehi pitulung lan nggabungake sawetara jinis senjata dominan sing luwih cilik, utamane panah mesiu, bom, lan bedhil. Iki paling mungkin amarga sawetara gaman dianggep angel banget utawa ora efektif kanggo dipasang.[12]

Panah geni

Ing wektu iki, formula ngemot uyah asin (udakara 50%) nganti bahan peledak, nanging campuran kasebut gampang banget, lan gaman kontemporer nggambarake iki nalika dikepengake minangka gegaman kejut lan ngobong. Salah siji sing pertama, yen dudu senjata pertama yaiku panah geni.[13] Referensi kaping pisanan babagan panggunaan panah geni yaiku dening Wu Kidul ing 904 nalika pengepungan Yuzhang. Petugas miturut Yang Xingmi kanthi jeneng Zheng Fan (鄭 璠) mrentah pasukane supaya "nembak mesin supaya geni lan ngobong Gerbang Longsha", sawise iku dheweke lan pasukane ngobong geni menyang kutha lan ngrebut, lan dheweke dipromosekake marang Perdana Menteri Inspektorat amarga usahane lan kobongan sing tahan awak.[14] Akun sabanjure acara iki cocog karo laporan kasebut lan nerangake manawa "kanthi geni murub (飛 火) tegese barang-barang kayata bom geni lan panah geni."[13] Panah sing nggawa bubuk mesiu bisa uga minangka senjata gegaman bubuk sing paling cocog nalika semana. Bubuk bubuk awal mung bisa ngasilake semangat sing efektif nalika kena oksigen, mula banter hawa ing sekitar panah nalika mabur bakal nyedhiyakake katalis sing cocog kanggo reaksi kasebut.[13]

Roket

Panah geni pisanan yaiku panah sing diikat nganggo bedhil bubuk nanging pungkasane dadi proyektil didorong mesiu (roket). Ora mesthi nalika kedadeyan kasebut. Miturut Sejarah Lagu, ing taun 969 loro jenderal Song, Yue Yifang lan Feng Jisheng (馮 繼 升), nggawe panah geni varian sing nggunakake tabung bubuk bubuk minangka propelan. Panah geni kasebut dituduhake menyang kaisar ing taun 970 nalika kepala biro manufaktur senjata ngirim Feng Jisheng kanggo nduduhake desain panah bubuk mesiu, amarga dheweke entuk pahala gedhe. Nanging Joseph Needham ujar manawa roket ora bisa ana sadurunge abad kaping-12, amarga formula bubuk bubuk sing didhaptar ing Wujing Zongyao ora cocog minangka propelan roket. Miturut Stephen G. Haw, mung ana sawetara bukti yen roket ana sadurunge taun 1200 lan luwih cenderung ora diprodhuksi utawa digunakake kanggo perang nganti pungkasane abad kaping 13. Roket direkam wis digunakake dening angkatan laut Song ing latihan militer tanggal 1245. Propulsi roket pembakaran internal disebutake ing referensi 1264, nyathet yen 'rat-ground,' jinis kembang api, wis medeni Emperor-Mother Gongsheng ing pesta sing dianakake kanggo ngurmati putrane yaiku Kaisar Lizong.[18]

Ing taun 975, negara bagian Wuyue dikirim menyang dinasti Song unit prajurit sing trampil nangani panah geni lan ing taun sing padha, Song nggunakake panah geni kanggo ngrusak armada Tang Kidul. Ing taun 994, ing Dinasti Liao nyerang Song lan ngepung Zitong kanthi pasukan 100.000. Dheweke ditolak nganggo bantuan panah geni. Ing 1000 prajurit kanthi jeneng Tang Fu (唐福) uga nduduhake rancangane dhewe panah mesiu, pot mesiu (bom protokol sing nyemburake), lan caltrops bubuk mesiu, sing uga bakal diganjar.[20]

Pengadilan kekaisaran seneng banget karo kemajuan pangembangan bubuk mesiu lan aktif nyengkuyung uga nyebarake teknologi militer. Contone, ing taun 1002 wong milisi lokal sing jenenge Shi Pu (石 普) nuduhake versi api lan panah mesiu kanggo pejabat kekaisaran. Dheweke kaget banget, mula kaisar lan pengadilan mutusake manawa tim bakal dikumpulake kanggo nyithak rencana lan pandhuan supaya desain anyar kasebut diumumake ing saindenging jagad.[20] Kebijakan Pengadilan Song sing menehi hadiah kanggo para inovator dilaporake "nggawa akeh kasus wong sing nampilake teknologi lan teknik" (器械 法式) miturut pejabat kasebut. Sejarah Lagu.[20] Produksi mesiu lan panah geni saya tambah akeh ing abad kaping 11 nalika pengadilan memusatake proses produksi, nyipta fasilitas produksi bubuk mesiu, nyewa tukang, tukang kayu, lan tukang kulit kanggo kompleks produksi militer ing ibukutha Kaifeng. Siji sumber sing isih ana sekitar taun 1023 nampilake kabeh pengrajin sing makarya ing Kaifeng, lan liyane nyathet yen ing 1083 pengadilan kekaisaran ngirim 100.000 panah bubuk mesiu menyang siji garnisun lan 250.000 liyane.[20]

Bukti bubuk mesiu ing Dinasti Liao lan Xia Kulon luwih akeh tinimbang Song, nanging ana sawetara bukti kayata Surat Keputusan Song of 1073 manawa kabeh subyek dilarang dagang belerang lan saltpeter ing tapel wates Liao, nuduhake manawa Liao ngerti perkembangan bubuk mesiu ing sisih kidul lan bahan bubuk mesiu sing dikarepake duweke dhewe.[20]

• Ilustrasi saka panah geni peluncur kaya sing digambarake ing Wubei Zhi (1621). Peluncur dibangun kanthi nggunakake basket.

• Peluncur roket panah "paket macan tutul" kaya sing digambarake ing Wubei Zhi.

• "Sarang lebah" (yi wo feng 一窩蜂) peluncur roket panah kaya sing digambarake ing Wubei Zhi. Sing diarani amarga bentuk madu madu heksagonal.

• A "mungsuh ula dawa" nglanggar "peluncur panah geni kaya sing digambarake ing Wubei Zhi. Iki nggawa 32 roket beracun cilik medium lan nggawa sling kanggo nggawa ing punggung.

• Peluncur roket 'elang ngoyak manuk garudha' saka Wubei Zhi. Podet roket kaping pindho sing nggawa 30 roket beracun cilik ing saben pungkasan kanthi total 60 roket. Nggawa sling kanggo transportasi.

• 'Layar panah geni ilahi' saka Huolongjing. Peluncur panah stasioner sing nggawa satus panah geni. Diaktifake kanthi mekanisme kaya jebakan, bisa uga desain kunci roda.

Bahan peledak

Ilustrasi bom gludhug kaya sing digambarake ing teks 1044 Wujing Zongyao. Barang paling dhuwur yaiku liwat awl lan sing ngisor yaiku awl hook, digunakake kanggo ngobong peluru sadurunge dilempar.

Rong jinis sing beda tombak geni. Tombak geni yaiku gaman bubuk anti-personel kanthi jarak sing cukup cekak. Dianggep akeh dadi protokol bedhil pisanan.

A mengko tombak geni njupuk bledosan geni kanthi pelet timah minangka proyektil co-viative. 'Labu-ngisi daya phalanx' (chong zhen huo hu-lu 衝 陣 火 葫蘆) nolak tombak lan mung gumantung karo kekuatan bubuk lan proyektil. Kaya sing digambarake ing Huolongjing, risalah militer abad kaping 14.

Ing Wong Jurchen saka Manchuria manunggal miturut Wanyan Aguda lan madeg ing Dinasti Jin ing taun 1115. Gandheng karo Lagu kasebut, dheweke maju kanthi cepet ing kakuwatan Asia Wétan lan ngalahake wangsa Liao ing wektu sing cendhak, ngrusak keseimbangan kekuwatan 150 taun ing antarane Song, Liao, lan Xia Barat. Sisa saka Liao ngungsi ing sisih kulon lan dadi dikenal minangka Qara Khitai, utawa Liao Kulon kanggo wong Tionghoa. Ing sisih wétan, aliansi Song-Jin sing ringkih bubar yen Jin ndeleng tumindak ala tentara Song nglawan pasukan Liao. Meruhi kekirangan Song, Jin dadi kesel ngenteni lan nyekel kabeh ibukutha Liao dhewe. Dheweke nglajengake perang nglawan Song, miwiti Perang Jin-Song.

Kanggo pisanan, loro kekuwatan utama bakal duwe akses menyang senjata bubuk mesiu sing padha.[21] Wiwitane, Jin ngarep-arep kampanye ing sisih kidul supaya bisa dilanjutake kanthi lancar amarga Song ora apik tumrap Liao. Nanging, dheweke ditentang kanthi kuat nalika ngepung Kaifeng ing taun 1126 lan ngadhepi panah panah bubuk lan bubuk geni sing biasa, nanging uga senjata sing diarani "bom petir" (霹靂 炮), sing ditulis sawijining saksi, "Ing wayah wengi bom gludhug digunakake, nyebabake garis mungsuh kanthi apik, lan nggawe dheweke bingung. Akeh sing mlayu, njerit wedi. "[21] Bom gludhug sadurunge kasebut ing Wujing Zongyao, nanging iki minangka conto panggunaan pisanan sing kacathet. Katrangan kasebut ing teks diwaca mangkene:

Bom gludhug ngemot dawa loro utawa telu internode saka pring garing kanthi diameter 1,5 ing. Mesthi ora ana retakan, lan septa kudu ditahan supaya ora ana bocor. Telung puluh potongan porselin sing lancip ukurane koin wesi dicampur nganggo bubuk mesiu 3 utawa 4 pon, lan dikemas ing tabung pring. Tabung kasebut dibungkus ing werni, nanging udakara inchi utawa luwih ing saben pucuk. Campuran bubuk (bedhil) banjur ditrapake ing saindenging lumahing bal.

Pasukan Jin mundur kanthi mbayar sutra Song lan bandha, nanging bali pirang-pirang wulan mengko nganggo bom mesiu dhewe sing diprodhuksi dening pengrajin Song sing direbut.[21] Miturut sejarawan Wang Zhaochun, akun perang iki nyedhiyakake "katrangan paling rinci babagan panggunaan senjata bubuk mesiu nalika perang."[21] Cathetan nuduhake manawa Jin nggunakake panah mesiu lan trebuchets kanggo mbuwang bom mesiu nalika Song nanggapi nganggo panah mesiu, bom geni, bom gludhug, lan tambahan anyar sing diarani "bom logam cair" (金 汁 炮).[23] Kaya sing dicritakake ing akun Jin, nalika nyerang Gerbang Xuanhua kutha, "bom geni padha udan kaya udan, lan panah padha akeh banget nganti ora bisa dietung."[23] Jin nyekel Kaifeng sanajan ana bom logam cair lan ngamanake 20.000 panah liyane kanggo senjata.[23]

Bom logam cair muncul maneh ing 1129 nalika Song jenderal Li Yanxian (李彥 仙) bentrok karo pasukan Jin nalika mbela pas strategis. Serangan Jin mau awan lan wengi tanpa istirahat, nggunakake kreta pengepung, kreta geni, lan kreteg langit, nanging saben serangan ditemokake karo prajurit Song sing "nolak saben acara, lan uga nggunakake bom logam cair. Ing endi wae bubuk mesiu, kabeh bakal bubar tanpa tilas. "[24]

Tombak geni

Lagu kasebut pindhah ibukutha menyang Hangzhou lan Jin nututi. Pertempuran sing ditindakake bakal weruh protokol-pistol sing pertama, yaiku tombak geni, tumindak - kanthi kerja sing dikonfirmasi paling dhisik dening pasukan wangsa Song nglawan Jin ing taun 1132 pengepungan De'an (modern Anlu, Provinsi Hubei),[28]

Pengepungan De'an minangka transisi lan landmark penting ing sejarah senjata bubuk nalika obat geni saka tombak geni diterangake nggunakake tembung anyar: "obat bom geni" (火炮 藥), tinimbang mung "obat-obatan geni. " Iki bisa uga ateges nggunakake formula anyar sing luwih kuat, utawa mung minangka pangakuan kanggo aplikasi khusus bubuk mesiu.[28] Peter Lorge negesake manawa "bubuk bom" iki bisa uga dikuncungake, nggawe bedane beda karo bubuk mesiu. Bukti mercon bubuk mesiu uga nuduhake tampilan kasebut kira-kira ing wektu sing padha obat obatan nggawe transisi ing imajinasi sastra.[30]

Pasukan pemadam kebakaran terus digunakake minangka senjata anti-personel menyang wangsa Ming, lan malah dipasang ing kreta perang ing sawijining kahanan ing taun 1163. Komandan Song Wei Sheng nggawe pirang-pirang atus kreta kasebut sing dikenal kanthi jeneng "perang-gegayuhanmu- kreta "(如意 戰車), sing ngemot tombak geni sing metu saka tutup protèktif ing sisih. Dheweke digunakake kanggo mbela trebuchets seluler sing mbuwang bom geni.[28]

Teknologi mesiu uga nyebar dadi perang angkatan laut lan ing taun 1129 Song nemtokake manawa kabeh kapal perang kudu dipasang trebuchets kanggo mbuwang bom mesiu.[28] Gaman bubuk mesiu lawas kayata panah geni uga digunakake. Ing taun 1159 ana armada Song saka 120 kapal nyekel armada Jin ing jangkar cedhak Pulo Shijiu (石臼 島) ing pinggir pantai Shandong semenanjung. Komandan Song "mrentah supaya panah bubuk mesiu ditembak saka kabeh sisi, lan ing endi wae disabetake, geni lan asap munggah swirls, ngobong sawetara atus kapal."[30] Pasukan Song njupuk kemenangan maneh ing taun 1161 nalika prau dayung Song nyerang armada transportasi Jin, ngluncurake bom gludhug, lan nglelebake pasukan Jin ing Yangtze.[30]

Wong-wong sing ana ing njerone dayung kanthi cepet ing treadmills, lan kapal-kapal kasebut meluncur maju kaya mabur, nanging ora ana sing katon. Mungsuh ngira yen digawe saka kertas. Banjur kabeh bom thunderclap suddena diluncurake: Digawe nganggo kertas (karton) lan kapenuhan jeruk nipis lan belerang. (Diluncurake saka trebuchets) bom gludhug iki tiba mudhun saka udhara, lan nalika ketemu banyune njeblug kanthi swara kaya gludhug, belerang kasebut nyala-nyala. Kasus karton mbalek maneh lan pecah, nyebar jeruk nipis dadi kabut asap sing mripate manungsa lan jaran supaya ora bisa ndeleng apa-apa. Kapal-kapal kita banjur maju nyerang duweke, lan jarane lan jarane padha mati kabeh, mula dheweke kabeh dikalahake.

Miturut pejabat militer cilik sing jenenge Zhao Wannian (趙 萬年), bom petir gempa digunakake maneh kanggo pengaruh gedhe saka Song nalika pengepungan Jin Xiangyang taun 1206-1207. Loro-lorone duwe senjata mesiu, nanging pasukan Jin mung nggunakake panah mesiu kanggo ngrusak kapal sing dipasang ing kutha kasebut. Lagu nggunakake panah geni, bom geni, lan bom gludhug. Panah lan bom geni digunakake kanggo nyirnakake trebuchets Jin. Bom gludhug kasebut digunakake ing prajurit Jin dhewe, nyebabake prajurit mlaku lan jaran padha panik lan mundur. "Kita ngalahake drum lan bengok-bengok saka ndhuwur tembok kutha, lan bebarengan ngetokake rudal gludhug metu saka tembok kutha. Kavaleri mungsuh wedi lan mlayu."[32] Jin dipeksa mundur lan nggawe kemah ing pinggir kali. Ing kedadeyan langka, Song nggawe serangan sukses marang pasukan Jin lan nindakake serangan wengi nggunakake kapal. Dheweke diisi panah mesiu, bom gludhug, sewu wong panah, limang atus tentara infantri, lan atus pemain drum. Pasukan Jin kaget ing kemah nalika turu kanthi bedhug banter, disusul serangan boling panah, lan banjur bom bledhèg, sing nyebabake panik sing gedhe banget mula dheweke ora bisa nunggoni awake dhewe lan padha mlaku-mlaku. . Pasukan Jin loro nganti telung ewu disembeleh jaran wolung atus atus.[32]

Bahan peledak keras

Banjur kabeh owah nalika dinasti Jin nyerang, kanthi bom sing luwih apik: bom wesi. Cara tradisional inspirasi kanggo pangembangan bom wesi kasebut diarani dongeng pamburu rubah sing jenenge Iron Li. Miturut crita kasebut, udakara taun 1189 Iron Li nggawe metode anyar kanggo mburu rubah sing nggunakake bahan peledak keramik kanggo medeni rubah menyang jaring. Bahan peledak kasebut kalebu botol keramik kanthi cangkeme, diiseni bubuk mesiu, lan dipasang nganggo sekring. Jeblugan lan jaring dilebokake ing titik-titik strategis kayata bolongan mbanyoni sing dibukak dening rubah, lan nalika wis cedhak, Iron Li bakal nyerang sekring, nyebabake botol keramik njeblug lan wedi karo rubah sing keweden ing jaring. Nalika dongeng sing nyenengake, ora ngerti sebabe iki nyebabake bom bom, amarga bahan peledak digawe nganggo keramik, lan bahan liyane kayata pring utawa kulit uga bisa nindakake tugas sing padha, kanthi asale nggawe swara cukup rame[33] Nanging, bom wesi kasebut tampil kaping pisanan ing taun 1221 nalika dikepung Qizhou (ing modern Provinsi Hubei), lan wektu iki bakal dadi Jin sing duwe kaluwihan teknologi. Komandan Song Zhao Yurong (趙 與 褣) slamet lan bisa ngirim akun kanggo keturunane.

Qizhou minangka kutha benteng utama sing ana ing cedhak Yangtze lan 25 ewu tentara Jin sing maju maju ing taun 1221. Warta babagan tentara sing nyedhaki tekan Zhao Yurong ing Qizhou, lan sanajan jumlah wonge meh wolu nganti siji, dheweke mutusake nyekel kutha kasebut. Senjata Qizhou kalebu udakara telung ewu bom gludhug, rong puluh ewu "bom kulit gedhe" (皮 大炮), lan ewonan panah mesiu lan bolplep mesiu. Nalika formula bubuk mesiu wis cukup kuat kanggo nganggep bom Song dadi bahan peledak sing sejati, dheweke ora bisa nyandhingake kekuwatan sing mbledhosake bom wesi Jin. Yurong nggambarake pertukaran sing ora rata, "Mungsuh biadab nyerang Menara Lor Kulon kanthi aliran proyektil katapel sing ora mandheg saka telulas katapel. Saben tembakan katapel disusul bom geni besi [tembakan catapult], sing swarane kaya gludhug. Dina iku prajurit kutha nalika ngadhepi tembakan catapult nuduhake keberanian banget nalika nggawe maneka katapel [kita dhewe], disekat dening cilaka saka bom geni besi. Sirah, mripate, pipine njeblug nganti pecah, lan mung setengah saka pasuryan ] ditinggal. "[34] Artilleris Jin bisa sukses target target pusat komando kasebut: "Musuh ngetokake watu katapel ... awan lan wengi ora mandheg, lan markas hakim [帳] ing gerbang wétan, uga kuartaku dhewe ..., yaiku kena bom geni paling wesi, nganti padha tekan ndhuwur kamar turu lan [aku] meh mati! Ana sing ujar yen ana pengkhianat. Yen ora, kepiye dheweke ngerti cara kanggo mogok kaloro papan iki? "[34]

Zhao bisa mriksa bom wesi anyar kasebut lan nerangake, "Wangunane kaya gourds, nanging cangkeme cilik. Bahane digawe saka wesi babi, udakara udakara rong inci, lan tembok kutha kasebut guncang."[34] Omah-omah dijeblug, menara rusak, lan para pembela jeblugan saka papane. Sajrone patang minggu, kabeh papat gerbang kasebut ana ing bom gedhe. Pungkasane, Jin nggawe serangan frontal ing tembok lan skala, banjur ngetutake prajurit, perwira, lan pejabat saka saben level tanpa belas kasihan. Zhao bisa lolos kanthi clamping ing papan lan nggawe mundur cepet-cepet nyebrang kali, nanging kulawargane tetep ana ing kutha kasebut. Sawise bali ing wektu sing mengko kanggo nggoleki reruntuhan, dheweke nemokake manawa "balung lan balung kasebut dicampur nganti ora ana cara kanggo ngandhani sapa sejatine."[34]

Meriam tangan

Meriam tangan saka ing Dinasti Yuan (1271–1368).

Tombak geni awal, dianggep minangka leluhur saka senjata api, ora dianggep senapan sejatine amarga ora kalebu proyektil, dene bedhil kanthi definisi nggunakake "pasukan peledak bubuk kanggo njeblugake proyektil saka tabung: meriam, musket , lan pistol minangka conto khas. ". Malah mengko nalika shrapnel kayata keramik lan bit wesi ditambahake menyang tombak geni, iki ora bisa ngganggu tong, lan mung disapu bareng karo ngeculake tinimbang nggunakake windage, lan diarani "co-viatives."[24]

Ing taun 1259 jinis "tombak pemancar geni" (tuhuoqiang 突 火槍) digawe katon lan miturut Sejarah Lagu: "Iki digawe saka tabung pring gedhe, lan ing njero isi wadhah pelet (子 窠). Sawise geni mati, sprei mburi bisa metu, lan swarane kaya bom sing bisa dirungokake nganti limang atus utawa luwih lakune. "[36][38][39][40] Wadhah pelet sing kasebut bisa uga minangka peluru sejatine sing pertama ing sejarah sing direkam, gumantung karo kepiye carane diarani peluru, amarga ora bisa ngetrapake laras, ora kaya co-viatives sadurunge sing digunakake ing tombak geni.[36] Sanjata geni diowahi saka "pring- (utawa kayu- utawa kertas-) senjata api laras menyang senjata api laras logam"[36] supaya luwih tahan tekanan bledug bubuk. Saka ing kana, dheweke dadi pirang-pirang senjata bubuk mesiu sing dikenal kanthi jeneng "bledug" ing pungkasan abad kaping 12 lan wiwitan abad kaping 13, kanthi fungsi sing beda kayata "tabung jeblugan ngisi langit" sing ngetokake gas beracun lan belang porselen, " tabung kabut ajaib sing nembus orifice sing nembus "(鑽 穴 飛砂 神 霧 筒) sing ngetokake pasir lan bahan kimia beracun menyang orifis, lan" labu pengisi daya phalanx "sing luwih konvensional sing ngetokake pelet timah.[36]

Gambaran artistik sing paling wiwitan babagan meriam tangan - patung rock sing ditemokake ing antarane Ukiran Rock Dazu - tanggal 1128, luwih awal tinimbang conto arkeologi sing direkam utawa tepat tanggal, mula bisa uga ana konsep senjata api kaya meriam wiwit abad kaping 12. Iki wis ditantang dening wong liya kayata Liu Xu, Cheng Dong, lan Benjamin Avichai Katz Sinvany. Miturut Liu, bobote meriam iku bakal kakehan wong, utamane mung nganggo siji lengen, lan nuduhake manawa pasukan pemadam kebakaran digunakake dasawarsa mengko ing De'an. Cheng Dong percaya yen tokoh sing digambarake sejatine semangat angin sing ngetokake hawa saka kanthong tinimbang meriam sing ngetokake jeblugan. Stephen Haw uga nganggep kemungkinan barang sing dimaksud yaiku kanthong udara nanging nyimpulake yen meriam amarga diklompokake karo patung liyane sing nggunakake gegaman. Sinvany percaya karo interpretasi kantung angin lan lekukan pelat meriam ditambahake mengko.[42]

Sampel arkeologi bedhil, khusus ing meriam tangan (huochong), wis tanggal wiwit abad kaping 13. Senjata paling tuwa sing saiki pacaran ora diragukan yaiku Xanadu Gun amarga ngemot prasasti sing nggambarake tanggal pabrikan sing cocog karo 1298. Sampeyan diarani amarga ditemokake ing reruntuhan Xanadu, istana musim panas Mongol ing Mongolia Batin. Gun Xanadu dawane 34,7 cm lan bobote 6,2 kg. Desain bedhil kalebu bolongan aksial ing mburi sing sawetara spekulasi bisa digunakake ing mekanisme pemasangan. Kaya umume bedhil awal, ukurane kurang luwih saka enem kilogram lan dawane telung puluh lima sentimeter.[43] Sanajan Gun Xanadu minangka bedhil sing paling akurat wiwit abad kaping 13, conto liyane sing isih ana kanthi perkiraan pacaran bisa uga sadurunge. Ing Meriam tangan Heilongjiang tanggal sepuluh taun kepungkur nganti 1288, nanging cara kencan adhedhasar bukti kontekstual; bedhil kasebut ora ana tulisan utawa tanggal jaman. Miturut Sejarah Yuan, ing 1287, klompok prajurit sing dilengkapi meriam tangan dipimpin dening komandan Jurchen Li Ting (李庭) nyerang kemah pangeran pemberontak Nayan. Ing Sejarah nglaporake manawa meriam tangan ora mung "nyebabake kerusakan gedhe," nanging uga nyebabake "kebingungan yen tentara mungsuh nyerang lan mateni." Meriem tangan digunakake maneh ing wiwitan taun 1288. "tentara bedhil" Li Ting utawa chongzu (卒) bisa nggawa meriam tangan "ing punggung". Wacana ing perang 1288 uga minangka sing pertama kanggo jeneng koin kasebut chong (銃) kanggo gaman laras logam. Chong digunakake tinimbang istilah sing luwih awal lan luwih ambigu huo tong (tabung geni; 筒), sing bisa uga nuduhake tabung saka tombak geni, proton-meriam, utawa suar sinyal.

Spesimen liyane, yaiku Meriam Gangsa Wuwei, ditemokake ing taun 1980 lan bisa uga meriam paling tuwa uga paling gedhe ing abad kaping-13: meriam tembaga 100 sentimeter 108 kilogram ditemokake ing rong ing Wuwei, Provinsi Gansu ora ngemot prasasti, nanging wis dingerteni dening para sejarawan ing pungkasan jaman Xia Barat antara taun 1214 lan 1227. Bedhil kasebut ngemot bal wesi kanthi diameter udakara sangang sentimeter, sing luwih cilik tinimbang diameter moncong ing rolas sentimeter, lan 0,1 kilogram bubuk mesiu ing nalika ditemokake, tegese proyektil bisa uga dadi co-viative liyane.[47] Ben Sinvany lan Dang Shoushan percaya manawa bal sadurunge luwih gedhe tinimbang kahanane sing korosi nalika ditemokake.[48] Sanajan ukurane gedhe, gamane luwih prativih tinimbang bedhake wangsa Yuan mengko, lan ora rata dibuwang. Gaman sing padha ditemokake ora adoh saka papan panemuan ing taun 1997, nanging ukurane luwih cilik mung 1,5 kg.[49] Nanging Chen Bingying mbantah masalah iki, lan negesake ora ana bedhil sadurunge taun 1259, dene Dang Shoushan percaya yen bedhil Xia Barat nunjukake bedhil ing taun 1220, lan Stephen Haw malah luwih maju kanthi negesake manawa bedhil dikembangake wiwit taun 1200.[50] Sinolog Joseph Needham lan ahli pengepungan Renaissance Thomas Arnold nyedhiyakake perkiraan sing luwih konservatif udakara taun 1280 kanggo munculake meriam "sejatine".

Apa ana sing bener utawa ora, kayane bedhil kasebut lair nalika abad kaping 13.[49]

Digunakake dening Mongol

Telung kaltrop tembikar kothong spekulasi wis diisi bubuk mesiu. Bisa abad kaping 13 - 14, bisa uga Dinasti Yuan (1206–1368).

Dinasti Ming njeblug kalsium tembikar. Saka Distrik Jizhou, Tianjin.

Bom 'meteor geni sihir nglawan angin' kaya sing digambarake ing Huolongjing.

Bom ajaib 'ngobong balung lan bruising geni' (lan gu huo you shen pao 爛 骨 火油 神 砲) bom fragmentasi saka Huolongjing. Iki kasusun saka cor wesi cor, pelet wesi sing dilapisi minyak tung, urin, sal amoniak, feses, lan jus daun bawang. Ing tengah ana tongkat mesiu.

Bom stoneware, dikenal nganggo basa Jepang minangka Tetsuhau (bom wesi), utawa ing basa Cina minangka Zhentianlei (bom gludhug gludhug), digali saka kapal karam Takashima, Oktober 2011, tanggal Serangan Mongol ing Jepang (1271–1284).

Ing Mongol lan paningkatan sejarah jagad uga konflik karo Jin lan Song nduweni peranan penting ing evolusi teknologi bubuk mesiu.[53] Kaprigelan Mongol nggabungake ahli manca negara nganti tekan Tionghoa, sing nyedhiyakake para pengrajin sing ngetutake tentara Mongol kanthi rela lan ora gelem adoh ing sisih kulon lan uga ing sisih wétan, menyang Jepang. Sayange bukti teks kanggo iki sithik amarga wong Mongol mung kari sawetara dokumen. Kurang dokumen sumber utama iki nyebabake sawetara sejarawan lan sarjana kayata Kate Raphael meragukan peran Mongol ing nyebarake bubuk mesiu ing saindenging Eurasia. Ing sisih liyane, sejarawan kayata Tonio Andrade lan Stephen Haw, sing percaya yen Kekaisaran Mongol ora mung nggunakake senjata bubuk, nanging uga pantes dadi moniker "kekaisaran bubuk mesiu pisanan."[54]

Nalukake wangsa Jin

Penjajahan Mongol kaping pisanan ing Jin kedadeyan ing taun 1211 lan total penaklukan durung rampung nganti taun 1234. Ing taun 1232 Mongol ngepung ibukota Kaifeng Jin lan masang senjata bubuk mesiu kanthi teknik pengepungan liyane sing luwih konvensional kayata bangunan stockade, bangunan pengawal, parit, omah-omah pengawal. , lan meksa wong Tionghoa sing ngusir pasokan lan ngisi gandum.[55] Sarjana Jin Liu Qi (劉 祈) nyritakake ing memoar kasebut, "serangan menyang tembok kutha saya saya kuat, lan bom mudhun nalika mungsuh [maju] mungsuh."[55] Pembela Jin uga nyebarke bom bubuk mesiu uga panah geni (huo jian 火箭) diluncurake nggunakake jinis roket propelan padat awal. Saka bom kasebut, Liu Qi nulis, "Saka njero tembok para pembela nanggapi bom mesiu sing diarani bom gludhug-guruh (heaven). Kapan pasukan [Mongol] nemoni siji, sawetara wong sekaligus malih dadi awu. "[55]

Katrangan sing luwih adhedhasar kasunyatan lan cetha babagan bom kasebut ana ing Sejarah Jin: "Bom gludhug swarga iku prau wesi sing diisi bubuk mesiu. Nalika diobong karo geni lan dibedhil, baline kaya gludhug sing bisa dirungokake nganti udakara atus li [telung puluh mil], kobong ndharat luwih saka setengah mu [所 爇 圍 半畝 之上, mu iku kaping enem hektar], lan geni kasebut bisa nembus waja wesi. "[55] Pejabat Ming jenenge He Mengchuan bakal nemoni cache lawas bom kasebut telung abad mengko ing wilayah Xi'an: "Nalika aku melu bisnis resmi menyang Provinsi Shaanxi, aku weruh ing ndhuwur tembok kutha Xi'an tumpukan wesi lawas bom. Dheweke diarani bom 'swarane goyang-goyang', lan padha karo mangkuk nasi sing ditutup kanthi bolongan ing sisih ndhuwur, cukup gedhe kanggo nyelehake driji sampeyan. Tentara kasebut ujar yen durung digunakake wis suwe. "[55] Salajengipun, piyambakipun nyerat, "Nalika bubuk bubuk, bom robek, lan wesi kasebut mabur ing kabeh arah. Mangkene carane bisa mateni wong lan jaran saka adoh."[56]

Bom gludhug swarga, uga dikenal minangka bom nabrak gludhug, digunakake sadurunge pengepungan ing taun 1231 nalika jenderal Jin nggunakake bom kasebut kanggo ngrusak kapal perang Mongol, nanging nalika pengepungan, Mongol nanggapi kanthi nglindhungi awake dhewe kanthi layar sing rumit. kulit sapi kandel. Iki cukup efektif kanggo para pekerja supaya terus maju menyang tembok kanggo ngrusak dhasar lan nggali ceruk. Pembela Jin mbantah kanthi naleni tali wesi lan dipasang ing bom gludhug swarga, sing diturunake ing tembok nganti tekan papan sing digunakake para penambang. Layar kulit pelindung ora tahan karo bledosan kasebut, lan ditembus, mateni para penggalian.[56]

Senjata liyane sing digunakake Jin yaiku versi tombak geni sing luwih apik sing diarani tombak geni. Ing Sejarah Jin nyedhiyakake katrangan rinci: "Kanggo nggawe tombak, gunakake kertas chi-huang, nembelas lapisan kanggo tabung, lan gawene luwih dawa tinimbang rong kaki. Isine nganggo areng willow, fragmen wesi, ujung magnet, belerang, putih arsenik [bisa uga ana kesalahan sing artine saltpeter], lan bahan liyane, lan pasang sekring nganti pungkasan. Saben pasukan nyekel pot wesi kanggo njaga geni [bisa uga koal panas], lan nalika wayahe perang, geni nembak sisih ngarep pucuk luwih saka sepuluh kaki, lan nalika bubuk mesiu, tabung kasebut ora rusak. "[56] Nalika para prajurit Mongol biasane duwe pandangan nistha marang senjatane Jin, jebule dheweke wedi banget karo geni geni lan bom gludhug swarga.[55] Kaifeng bisa nahan setaun sadurunge kaisar Jin mlayu lan kutha kasebut dadi kutha. Ing sawetara kasus, pasukan Jin isih perang kanthi sukses, nyetak kemenangan sing kapisah kayata nalika komandan Jin nuntun 450 peluru geni nglawan kamp Mongol, sing "kabeh diuripake, lan telung ewu limang atus padha tenggelam."[56] Sanajan sawise kaisar Jin bunuh diri ing taun 1234, salah sawijining setia nglumpukake kabeh logam sing bisa ditemokake ing kutha sing dheweke bela, sanajan emas lan perak, lan nggawe bahan peledak kanggo nglawan wong Mongol, nanging momentum Kekaisaran Mongol ora bisa mandheg.[57] Ing taun 1234, dinasti Xia Kulon lan Jin uga wis ditaklukake.[58]

Digdaya saka wangsa Song

Mesin perang Mongol pindhah kidul lan ing taun 1237 nyerang kutha Song Anfeng (modern Wong shouxian, Provinsi Anhui) "nggunakake bom bubuk [huo pao] kanggo ngobong menara [pertahanan]."[58] Bom kasebut ketoke cukup gedhe. "Pirang-pirang atus wong mbuwang siji bom, lan yen nubruk menara kasebut bakal langsung pecah."[58] Pembela Song ing komandan Du Gao (杜 杲) mbangun menara kasebut lan mbales nganggo bom dhewe, sing diarani "Elipao," sawise woh pir lokal sing misuwur, bisa uga nuduhake bentuk gaman kasebut.[58] Mungkin minangka titik kepentingan militer liyane, akun perang iki uga nyebutake manawa para pemain pertahanan Anfeng dilengkapi jinis panah cilik kanggo nembak irisan-irisan waja Mongol, amarga panah normal uga nglukis.[58]

Ing pertengahan abad kaping 13, senjata mesiu wis dadi pusat upaya perang Song. Ing taun 1257 pejabat Song Li Zengbo dikirim kanggo mriksa arsenal kutha wates. Li nganggep gudang senjata ing kutha ideal kanggo nyakup sawetara atus ewu bom besi, lan uga fasilitas produksi dhewe kanggo ngasilake paling ora sawetara ewu sewulan. Asil ture ing tapel wates kasebut banget nguciwani lan ing sawijining gudang senjata nemokake "ora luwih saka 85 cangkang bom wesi, gedhe lan cilik, 95 panah panah, lan tembakan 105. Iki ora cukup kanggo satus wong, apamaneh sewu, kanggo nggunakake serangan ... wong-wong barbar. Pamrentah mesthine pengin nggawe persiapan kanggo pertahanan kutha-kutha sing benteng, lan menehi pasokan militer nglawan mungsuh (nanging iki kabeh wenehi kita). Apa sing ora nyenengake! "[59] Begjanipun kanggo Song, Möngke Khan tilar donya ing taun 1259 lan perang ora bakal dilanjutake nganti taun 1269 ing sangisore pimpinan Kublai Khan, nanging nalika Mongol teka kanthi kekuwatan.

Mblokir dalan Mongol ing sisih kidul Yangtze yaiku kutha kuta Xiangyang lan Fancheng. Sing ngasilake yaiku salah sawijining pengepungan paling dawa sing durung dingerteni ing saindenging jagad, wiwit taun 1268 nganti 1273. Ing taun 1273 wong Mongol entuk keahliane rong insinyur muslim, siji saka Persia lan siji saka Suriah, sing mbantu nggawe trebuchets kontra. Senjata pengepungan anyar iki nduweni kemampuan mbuwang rudal luwih gedhe tinimbang trebuchets daya tarik sadurunge. Siji akun nyathet, "nalika mesin mati, swarane gumuruh swarga lan bumi; kabeh barang sing ditabrak [misil] rusak lan rusak."[60] Kutha benteng Xiangyang ambruk ing taun 1273.[24]

Perang utama sabanjure kanggo nampilake senjata bubuk bubuk yaiku nalika kampanye sing dipimpin dening jenderal Mongol Bayan, sing mrentah tentara udakara rong atus ewu, sing akehe prajurit Tionghoa. Bisa uga tentara sing paling gedhe sing digunakake Mongol. Tentara kaya ngono isih ora bisa sukses nyerang tembok kutha Song, kaya sing dideleng ing Pengepungan Shayang taun 1274. Mula, Bayan ngenteni angin bakal ganti ing arah lor sadurunge mrentah para seniman kanggo miwiti ngebom kutha kasebut nganggo bom logam cair, sing nyebabake geni kaya "bangunan wis kobong lan asap lan geni munggah menyang swarga."[24] Shayang dicekel lan pedunung padha dipateni.[24]

Bom bubuk mesiu digunakake maneh ing Pengepungan Changzhou ing 1275 ing tahap pungkasan Perang Mongol-Song. Sawise tekan kutha, Bayan menehi penduduk ultimatum: "Yen sampeyan ... nolak kita ... kita bakal ngilangi bangkai getih sampeyan lan digunakake kanggo bantal."[24] Iki ora bisa digunakake lan kutha kasebut tetep nolak, mula tentara Mongol ngebom nganggo bom geni sadurunge nyerang tembok, lan sawise ana penyembelihan sing mateni nyawa udakara seprapat yuta.[24] Perang kasebut mung suwene patang taun suwene, nalika sisa-sisa Song nylametake pertahanan nekat pungkasan. Ing taun 1277, 250 pemain pertahanan ing sangisore Lou Qianxia nindakake bom bunuh diri lan ngetokake bom besi gedhe nalika dadi jelas kekalahan wis cedhak. Iki, ing Sejarah Lagu nyerat, "swara kasebut kaya gludhug gedhe banget, nggerok tembok lan lemah, lan asap ngebaki langit ing njaba. Akeh pasukan [ing njaba] kaget. Nalika geni mati, dheweke banjur ndeleng. Ing kana mung awu, ora ana tilas sing isih ana. "[61] Dadi pungkasane Perang Mongol-Song, sing nyumurupi kabeh senjata bubuk bubuk kasedhiya ing loro-lorone nalika semana, sing umume tegese panah, bom, lan tombak bubuk, nanging yen dipikir maneh, pembangunan liyane bakal mbayangke kabeh mau, laire bedhil.[36]

Ing taun 1280, akeh bubuk mesiu ing Weiyang ing Yangzhou ora sengaja diobong, ngasilake bledosan banget saengga tim inspektur ing situs kasebut seminggu mengko nyadari yen ana 100 penjaga sing tiwas langsung, balok kayu lan tiang ditiup langit kanthi dhuwur lan kebangkrutan udakara luwih saka 10 li (~ 2 mi. Utawa ~ 3 km) adoh saka bledosan kasebut, nggawe kawah sing ambané luwih saka sepuluh kaki.[63]

Nalika jaman Jiao Yu lan kang Huolongjing (buku sing njlentrehake babagan aplikasi militer bubuk mesiu kanthi rinci) ing pertengahan abad kaping 14, potensial bubuk bubuk bisa njeblug, amarga level nitrat ing formula bubuk bubuk mundhak saka kisaran 12% nganti 91%,[64] paling ora nggunakake 6 formula liyane sing dianggep duwe potensi explosive maksimal kanggo bubuk mesiu.[64] Nalika semana, wong Tionghoa wis nemokake cara nggawe bahan peledak dijupuk babak kanthi ngemas cangkang kothong nganggo bubuk mesiu sing ditambah nitrat.[65]

Serangan Eropa lan Jepang

Bubuk bubuk bisa uga digunakake sajrone Serangan Mongol ing Eropa.[66] "Katapel geni", "pao", lan" naphtha-shooters "disebutake ing sawetara sumber.[67][69][70] Nanging, miturut Timoteus May, "ora ana bukti nyata manawa wong Mongol nggunakake senjata bubuk bubuk kanthi rutin ing njaba China."[71]

Sakcepete sawise Serangan Mongol ing Jepang (1274–1281), Jepang ngasilake lukisan gulung sing nggambarake bom. Disebut tetsuhau ing basa Jepang, bom kasebut spekulasi minangka wong Cina bom gludhug gludhug.[72] Deskripsi Jepang babagan invasi uga ngomong babagan wesi lan pring pao nyebabake "cahya lan geni" lan ngetokake peluru wesi 2-3.000.

Jenderal komandan njaga jabatane ing papan sing dhuwur, lan ngarahake macem-macem detasemen sing kudu ana sinyal saka drum tangan. Nanging manawa tentara (Mongol) mlayu, dheweke ngirim cangkang bom wesi (tetsuho) mabur nglawan kita, sing nggawe sisihane pusing lan bingung. Prajurit kita padha keweden amarga jeblugan bledhèg; mripate dibuta, kupinge budheg, nganti meh ora bisa mbedakake sisih wetan lan kulon. Miturut gelut, kita luwih dhisik kudu nyebut jenenge wong saka rangking mungsuh, lan banjur nyerang kanthi siji perang. Nanging dheweke (wong Mongol) ora nggatekake kabeh konvensi kasebut; kabeh padha maju bareng-bareng nglumpuk, golek rebutan karo wong sing bisa dicekel lan dipateni.

Samurai Takezaki Suenaga ngadhepi panah lan bom Mongol lan Korea.

Nyebar ing saindhenging Eurasia lan Afrika

Sanajan senapan paling tuwa sing ana ing wangsa Yuan, ana bukti-bukti sing bisa dipercaya bedhil ing Iran utawa Asia Tengah sadurunge pungkasan abad kaping 14. Ing Timur Tengah, ora ana bedhil sing disebutake sadurunge taun 1360an, nalika Cathetan Rusia ora ngemot sebutan senjata api sing bisa dipercaya nganti taun 1382, sawise tekan bedhil ing Eropa sisih kulon, sanajan jarak lan interaksi sing cedhak karo kerajaan Mongol.[75] Ana sawetara bukti sing nuduhake kemungkinan ana bedhil ing Andalusia wiwit taun 1330an.[75] Thomas T. Allsen ujar manawa "ing Latin Latin bukti-bukti senjata pertama sing ora bisa dikepengini yaiku wiwit taun 1326, kaget rada luwih awal tinimbang ing tanah-tanah sing ana ing antarane China ... lan Eropa sisih kulon.[75]

• "Letusan" kaya sing digambarake ing Huolongjing. Intine tombak api ing bingkai, 'jeblugan majalah peluru pirang-pirang nembak, sing dimuat ing majalah lan diwenehake menyang tong nalika diowahi ing poros.

• Ilustrasi 'bledug-bledug-awan maya', meriam sing ngetokake bom gludhug, saka Huolongjing.

• A 'kabut asap gaib njeblug asap' (du wu shen yan pao) kaya sing digambarake ing Huolongjing. Nihan cilik sing ngetokake asap beracun diobong.

• Meriam lan tembak meriam saka kaca saka Babagan Rahasia Rahasia naskah dening Pseudo-Aristoteles, 1320-an

• Resep bubuk mesiu (pulveres pixidum) ing naskah tanggal c. 1400 (GNM 3227a fol. 6rĎ).

Timur Tengah

Panah geni lan tombak geni ing naskah Arab.

Dunia Muslim entuk ilmu bubuk mesiu sawetara wektu sawise taun 1240, nanging sadurunge taun 1280, nalika semana Hasan al-Rammah had written, in Arabic, recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries. Gunpowder arrived in the Middle East, possibly through India, from China. This is implied by al-Rammah's usage of "terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources" and his reference to saltpeter as "Chinese snow" Arab: ثلج الصين‎ thalj al-ṣīn, fireworks as "Chinese flowers" and rockets as "Chinese arrows". Similarly, the Persians called saltpeter "Chinese salt"[77][79][80][81] or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" (namak shūra chīnī Persia: نمک شوره چيني‎). It is sometimes suggested that it was invading Mongol who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world.[84]

Hasan al-Rammah also describes the purifying of saltpeter using the proses kimia saka solusi lan kristalisasi. This was the first clear method for the purification of saltpeter.[85] Sing paling wiwitan torpedo was also first described in 1270 by Hasan al-Rammah in The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices, which illustrated a torpedo running with a rocket system filled with explosive materials and having three firing points.[86][87]

The earliest surviving documentary evidence for the use of the meriam tangan in the Islamic world are from several Arabic manuscripts dated to the 14th century.[88][89] According to Paul E. J. Hammer, the Mamluks certainly used cannons by 1342.[90]

Eropa

European tiller gun lighted by a hot iron rod being fired from a stand, manuscript by Konrad Kyeser: Bellifortis. c. 1402–1404

Swiss soldier firing a hand cannon late 14th, 15th centuries, produced in 1874.

The earliest European references to gunpowder are found in Roger Bacon's Opus Majus from 1267, in which he mentions a firecracker toy found in various parts of the world. The passage reads: "We have an example of these things (that act on the senses) in [the sound and fire of] that children's toy which is made in many [diverse] parts of the world; i.e., a device no bigger than one's thumb. From the violence of that salt called saltpeter [together with sulfur and willow charcoal, combined into a powder] so horrible a sound is made by the bursting of a thing so small, no more than a bit of parchment [containing it], that we find [the ear assaulted by a noise] exceeding the roar of strong thunder, and a flash brighter than the most brilliant lightning." In the early 20th century, British artillery officer Henry William Lovett Hime proposed that another work tentatively attributed to Bacon, Epistola de Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae, et de Nullitate Magiae contained an encrypted formula for gunpowder. This claim has been disputed by historians of science including Lynn Thorndike, John Maxson Stillman lan George Sarton and by Bacon's editor Robert Steele, both in terms of authenticity of the work, and with respect to the decryption method. In any case, the formula claimed to have been decrypted (7:5:5 saltpeter:charcoal:sulfur) is not useful for firearms use or even firecrackers, burning slowly and producing mostly smoke. However, if Bacon's recipe is taken as measurements by volume rather than weight, a far more potent and serviceable explosive powder is created suitable for firing hand-cannons, albeit less consistent due to the inherent inaccuracies of measurements by volume. One example of this composition resulted in 100 parts saltpeter, 27 parts charcoal, and 45 parts sulfur, by weight.[96]

The oldest written recipes for gunpowder in Europe were recorded under the name Marcus Graecus or Mark the Greek between 1280 and 1300 in the Ignium Liber, utawa Book of Fires. One recipe for "flying fire" (ignis volatilis) involves saltpeter, sulfur, and colophonium, which, when inserted into a reed or hollow wood, "flies away suddenly and burns up everything." Another recipe, for artificial "thunder", specifies a mixture of one pound native sulfur, two pounds linden or willow charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter. Another specifies a 1:3:9 ratio.

The earliest known European depiction of a gun appeared in 1326 in a manuscript by Walter de Milemete, although not necessarily drawn by him, known as De Nobilitatibus, sapientii et prudentiis regum (Concerning the Majesty, Wisdom, and Prudence of Kings), which displays a gun with a large arrow emerging from it and its user lowering a long stick to ignite the gun through the touchole[100] In the same year, another similar illustration showed a darker gun being set off by a group of knights, which also featured in another work of de Milemete's, De secretis secretorum Aristotelis.[101] On 11 February of that same year, the Signoria saka Florence appointed two officers to obtain canones de mettallo and ammunition for the town's defense. In the following year a document from the Turin area recorded a certain amount was paid "for the making of a certain instrument or device made by Friar Marcello for the projection of pellets of lead."[100]

A common theory of how gunpowder came to Europe is that it made its way along the Dalan Sutra through the Middle East. Another is that it was brought to Europe during the Mongol invasion in the first half of the 13th century. Some sources claim that Chinese firearms and gunpowder weapons may have been deployed by Mongols against European forces at the Perang Musa ing taun 1241. It may also have been due to subsequent diplomatic and military contacts. Some authors have speculated that William saka Rubruck, who served as an ambassador to the Mongols from 1253 to 1255, was a possible intermediary in the transmission of gunpowder since his travels were recorded by Roger Bacon, but there is no real evidence for that.

When gunpowder first appears in Europe it was generally referred to as bedhilpowder rather than a civilian term such as the Chinese "fire-drug," which suggests an originally non-military usage; whereas in Europe it was almost immediately and exclusively used for its military qualities.[100] Furthermore, early European gunpowder recipes shared identical defects with Chinese recipes such as the inclusion of the poisons sal ammoniac and arsenic, which provide no benefit to gunpowder. Bert S. Hall explains that "gunpowder came [to Europe], not as an ancient mystery, but as a well-developed modern technology, in a manner very much like twentieth-century 'technology-transfer' projects."[100] Muslim terms of saltpeter may also point toward a Chinese source of gunpowder transmission, if not the gun itself, as an Andalusian botanist referred to it as "Chinese snow."[100]

The 1320s seem to have been the takeoff point for guns in Europe according to most modern military historians. Scholars suggest that the lack of gunpowder weapons in a well-traveled Venetian's catalogue for a new crusade in 1321 implies that guns were unknown in Europe up until this point.[100] From the 1320s guns spread rapidly across Europe. The French raiding party that sacked and burned Southampton in 1338 brought with them a ribaudequin and 48 bolts (but only 3 pounds of gunpowder).[109] By 1341 the town of Lille had a "tonnoire master," and a tonnoire was an arrow-hurling gun. In 1345, two iron cannons were present in Toulouse. In 1346 Aix-la-Chapelle too possessed iron cannons which shot arrows (busa ferrea ad sagittandum tonitrum).[110] Ing Perang Crécy in 1346 was one of the first in Europe where cannons were used.[111] By 1350 Petrarch wrote that the presence of cannons on the battlefield was 'as common and familiar as other kinds of arms'.[112]

Around the late 14th century European and Ottoman guns began to deviate in purpose and design from guns in China, changing from small anti-personnel and incendiary devices to the larger artillery pieces most people imagine today when using the word "cannon."[113] If the 1320s can be considered the arrival of the gun on the European scene, then the end of the 14th century may very well be the departure point from the trajectory of gun development in China. In the last quarter of the 14th century, European guns grew larger and began to blast down fortifications.[113]

• Gun of Mantua (image produced 1869), no longer extant

• Oldest known European depiction of a firearm from De Nobilitatibus Sapientii Et Prudentiis Regum dening Walter de Milemete (1326).

• Reconstruction of an arrow-firing cannon that appears in a 1326 manuscript.

• Eropa Kulon handgun, 1380. 18 cm-long and weighing 1.04 kg, it was fixed to a wooden pole to facilitate manipulation. Musée de l'Armée.

• The Mörkö gun is another early Swedish firearm discovered by a fisherman in the Baltic Sea at the coast of Södermansland near Nynäs in 1828. It has been given a date of c. 1390.

• The Tannenberg handgonne is a cast bronze firearm. Muzzle bore 15–16 mm. Found in the water well of the 1399 destroyed Tannenberg castle. Oldest surviving firearm from Germany.

Asia Tenggara

A double barrelled cetbang on a carriage, with swivel yoke, c. 1522. The mouth of the cannon is in the shape of Javanese Nāga.

Ing Asia Tenggara, ing Mlebu Mongol ing tanah jawa in 1293 brought gunpowder technology to the Nusantara archipelago in the form of cannon (Chinese: Pao).[114] Documentary and archeological evidence indicate that Wong Arab traders introduced gunpowder weapons to the Javanese, Wong Aceh, lan Batak via long established commercial rute perdagangan around the early to mid 14th century.[115] Eventhough the knowledge of making gunpowder-based weapon has been known after the failed Mongol invasion of Java, and the predecessor of firearms, the pole gun (bedil tombak), was recorded as being used by Java in 1413,[116][117]:245 the knowledge of making "true" firearms came much later, after the middle of 15th century. Iki digawa dening Islam nations of West Asia, most probably the Wong Arab. The precise year of introduction is unknown, but it may be safely concluded to be no earlier than 1460.[118]:23 Before the arrival of the Portuguese in Southeast Asia, the natives already possessed primitive firearms, the Arquebus jawa.[119] Portuguese influence to local weaponry, particularly after the capture of Malacca (1511), resulted in a new type of hybrid tradition matchlock firearm, the istinggar.[120]

Cannons were used by the Kerajaan Ayutthaya in 1352 during its invasion of the Kakaisaran Khmer. Within a decade large quantities of gunpowder could be found in the Kakaisaran Khmer. By the end of the century firearms were also used by the Trần wangsa.

Saltpeter harvesting was recorded by Dutch and German travelers as being common in even the smallest villages and was collected from the decomposition process of large dung hills specifically piled for the purpose. The Dutch punishment for possession of non-permitted gunpowder appears to have been amputation.[123] Ownership and manufacture of gunpowder was later prohibited by the colonial Walanda penjajah[115] According to colonel McKenzie quoted in Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles', Sejarah Jawa (1817), the purest sulfur was supplied from a crater from a mountain near the straits of Bali.[124]

India

Gunpowder technology is believed to have arrived in India by the mid-14th century, but could have been introduced much earlier by the Mongol, who had conquered both China and some borderlands of India, perhaps as early as the mid-13th century. The unification of a large single Kakaisaran Mongol resulted in the free transmission of Chinese technology into Mongol conquered parts of India. Regardless, it is believed that the Mongols used Chinese gunpowder weapons during their invasions of India.[125] Iki ditulis ing Tarikh-i Firishta (1606–1607) that the envoy of the Mongol ruler Hulegu Khan was presented with a dazzling pyrotechnics display upon his arrival in Delhi ing taun 1258.[126] The first gunpowder device, as opposed to naphtha-based pyrotechnics, introduced to India from China in the second half of the 13th century, was a rocket called the "hawai" (also called "ban"). The rocket was used as an instrument of war from the second half of the 14th century onward, and the Delhi sultanate as well as Bahmani kingdom made good use of them. As a part of an embassy to India by Timurid leader Shah Rukh (1405–1447), 'Abd al-Razzaq mentioned naphtha-throwers mounted on elephants and a variety of pyrotechnics put on display. Roger Pauly has written that "while gunpowder was primarily a Chinese innovation," the saltpeter that led to the invention of gunpowder may have arrived from India, although it is also likely that it originates indigenously in China.[130]

Firearms known as top-o-tufak uga ana ing Kakaisaran Vijayanagara of India by as early as 1366 CE.[126] In 1368–1369, the Kasultanan Bahmani may have used firearms against the Vijayanagara, but these weapons could have been pyrotechnics as well.[131] By 1442 guns had a clearly felt presence in India as attested to by historical records.[75] From then on the employment of gunpowder warfare in India was prevalent, with events such as the siege of Belgaum in 1473 AD by the Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani. Muslim and Hindu states in the south were advanced in artillery compared to the Delhi rulers of this period because of their contact with outside world, especially Turkey, through the sea route. The south Indian kingdoms imported their gunners (topci) and artillery fromTurkey and the Arab countries, with whom they had developed good relations.[133]

Korea

A hwacha manual from the Gukjo orye seorye (1474)

Korea began production of gunpowder during the years 1374–76.[134] In the 14th century a Korean scholar named Choe Museon discovered a way to produce it after visiting China and bribing a merchant by the name of Li Yuan for the gunpowder formula.[135] In 1377 he figured out how to extract potassium nitrate from the soil and subsequently invented the juhwa, Korea's first rocket,[136] and further developments led to the birth of singijeons, Korean arrow rockets. The multiple rocket launcher known as hwacha ("fire cart" 火車) was developed from the juhwa and singijeon in Korea by 1409 during the Dinasti Joseon. Its inventors include Yi Apa (이도, not to be mistaken for Sejong sing Agung) lan Choi Hae-san (최해산, son of Choe Museon).[137][138] However the first hwachas did not fire rockets, but utilized mounted bronze guns that shot iron-fletched darts.[139] Rocket launching hwachas were developed in 1451 under the decree of King Munjong and his younger brother Pe. ImYung (Yi Gu, 임영대군 이구). This "Munjong Hwacha" is the well-known type today, and could fire 100 rocket arrows or 200 small Chongtong bullets at one time with changeable modules. At the time, 50 units were deployed in Hanseong (present-day Seoul), and another 80 on the northern border. By the end of 1451, hundreds of hwachas were deployed throughout Korea.[137][140]

Naval gunpowder weapons also appeared and were rapidly adopted by Korean ships for conflicts against Japanese pirates in 1380 and 1383. By 1410, 160 Korean ships were reported to have equipped artillery of some sort. Mortars firing thunder-crash bombs are known to have been used, and four types of cannons are mentioned: chonja (heaven), chija (earth), hyonja (black), and hwangja (yellow), but their specifications are unknown. These cannons typically shot wooden arrows tipped with iron, the longest of which were nine feet long, but stone and iron balls were sometimes used as well.

Jepang

Firearms seem to have been known in Japan around 1270 as proto-cannons invented in China, which the Japanese called teppō (鉄砲 lit. "iron cannon"). Gunpowder weaponry exchange between China and Japan was slow and only a small number of hand guns ever reached Japan. However Japanese samurai digunakake Fire lances in 15th-century. The first recorded appearance of the Fire lances in Japan was in 1409. The use of gunpowder bombs in the style of Chinese explosives is known to have occurred in Japan from at least the mid-15th century onward. The first recorded appearance of the cannon in Japan was in 1510 when a Buddhist monk presented Hōjō Ujitsuna with a teppō iron cannon that he had acquired during his travels in China. Firearms saw very little use in Japan until Portuguese matchlocks were introduced ing taun 1543. Sajrone Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598), pasukan saka Toyotomi Hideyoshi effectively utilized matchlock firearms against the Korean forces of Joseon,[148] although they would ultimately be defeated and forced to withdraw from the Semenanjung Korea.

Afrika

Ing Afrika, ing Adal Empire lan ing Abyssinian Empire both deployed gunpowder weapons during the Adal-Abyssinian War. Imported from Arab, and the wider Islamic world, the Adalites, led by Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, were the first African power to introduce cannon warfare to the African continent.[149] Later on as the Kakaisaran Portugis entered the war it would supply and train the Abyssinians with cannon and muskets, while the Kakaisaran Ottoman sent soldiers and cannon to back Adal. The conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of senjata api kayata ing matchlock musket, cannon, and the arquebus liwat gaman tradisional.[150]

Ernest Gellner in his book 'Bangsa-Bangsa lan Nasionalisme' argues that the centralizing potential of the gun and the book, enabled both the Wong Somalia lan ing Wong Amhara to dominate the political history of a vast area in Africa, despite neither of them being numerically predominant.[151]

"Ing Horn saka Afrika both the Amharas and the Somalis possessed both gun and Book (not the same Book, but rival and different editions), and neither bothered greatly with the wheel. Each of these ethnic groups was aided in its use of these two pieces of cultural equipment by its link to other members of the wider religious civilization which habitually used them, and were willing to replenish their stock." – Ernest Gellner

Early modern gunpowder development

Ming artillerymen from a mural in Kabupaten Yanqing, Beijing.

Drawing of a Great General Cannon, from 'Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》').

Defensive wall of Prince Qin Mansion, western section.

The 15th through 18th centuries saw widespread improvement in gunpowder technology. Military developments in Europe and the aggressive application of technological advances in this period is usually referred to as early modern warfare, when Europe gained a global advantage in deep-water warfare and fortress architecture.[152] Eventually military science in Europe led to a marked technological departure from the rest of the world known as the Divergensi Gedhe, istilah sing digawe dening Samuel P. Huntington. Gunpowder remained of central importance until it was replaced by more advanced explosives beginning in the 1860s.

Early Ming firearms

Gun development and proliferation in China continued under the Ming dynasty. The success of its founder Zhu Yuanzhang, who declared his reign to be the era of Hongwu, or "Great Martiality," has often been attributed to his effective use of guns.

Most early Ming guns weighed two to three kilograms while guns considered "large" at the time weighed around only seventy-five kilograms. Ming sources suggest guns such as these shot stones and iron balls, but were primarily used against men rather than for causing structural damage to ships or walls. Accuracy was low and they were limited to a range of only 50 paces or so.[153]

Despite the relatively small size of Ming guns, some elements of gunpowder weapon design followed world trends.[154] The growing length to muzzle bore ratio matched the rate at which European guns were developing up until the 1450s. The practice of corning gunpowder had been developed by 1370 for the purpose of increasing explosive power in land mines,[154] and was arguably used in guns as well according to one record of a fire-tube shooting a projectile 457 meters, which was probably only possible at the time with the usage of corned powder. Around the same year Ming guns transitioned from using stone shots to iron ammunition, which has greater density and increased firearm power.[156]

The peak of Chinese cannon development prior to the incorporation of European weaponry in the 16th century is exemplified by the muzzle loading wrought iron "great general cannon" (大將軍炮) which weighed up to 360 kilograms and could fire a 4.8 kilogram lead ball. Its heavier variant, the "great divine cannon" (大神銃), could weigh up to 600 kilograms and was capable of firing several iron balls and upward of a hundred iron shots at once. The great general and divine cannons were the last indigenous Chinese cannon designs prior to the incorporation of European models in the 16th century.[157]

The lack of larger siege weapons in China unlike the rest of the world where cannons grew larger and more potent has been attributed to the immense thickness of traditional Chinese walls,[158] which Tonio Andrade suggests provided no incentive for creating larger cannons, since even industrial artillery had trouble overcoming them.[159] Asianist Kenneth Chase also argues that larger guns were not particularly useful against China's traditional enemies: horse nomads.[160]

• An organ gun known as the 'mother of a hundred bullets gun' (zi mu bai dan chong) from the Huolongjing.

• An illustration of a bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon" from the Huolongjing.

• A seven barreled organ gun with two auxiliary guns by its side on a two-wheeled carriage. Saka ing Huolongjing.

• A 'barbarian attacking cannon' as depicted in the Huolongjing. Chains are attached to the cannon to adjust recoil.

• Two "awe-inspiring long range cannons" (威遠砲), from the Huolongjing

• A depiction of the "crouching tiger cannon" from the Huolongjing

Big guns

The development of large artileri pieces began with Burgundy. Originally a minor power, it grew to become one of the most powerful states in 14th-century Europe, and a great innovator in siege warfare. The Duke of Burgundy, Filipus sing Bold (1363–1404), based his power on the effective use of big guns and promoted research and development in all aspects of gunpowder weaponry technology. Philip established manufacturers and employed more cannon casters than any European power before him.

Whereas most European guns before 1370 weighed about 20 to 40 lbs (9–14 kg), the French siege of Château de Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte in 1375 during the Perang atusan taun saw the use of guns weighing over a ton (900 kg), firing stone balls weighing over 100 lbs (45 kg). Philip used large guns to help wong Prancis capture the fortress of Odruik in 1377. These guns fired projectiles far larger than any that had been used before, with seven guns that could shoot projectiles as heavy as 90 kilograms. The cannons smashed the city walls, inaugurating a new era of artillery warfare and Burgundy's territories rapidly expanded.[162]

Europe entered an arms race to build ever larger artillery pieces. By the early 15th century both French and English armies were equipped with larger pieces known as tukang ngebom, weighing up to 5 tons (4,535 kg) and firing balls weighing up to 300 lbs (136 kg). The artillery trains used by Henry V saka Inggris in the 1415 Pengepungan Harfleur and 1419 Pengepungan Rouen proved effective in breaching French fortifications, while artillery contributed to the victories of French forces under Joan saka Arc ing Kampanye Loire (1429).

These weapons were transformational for European warfare. A hundred years earlier the Frenchman Pierre Dubois wrote that a "castle can hardly be taken within a year, and even if it does fall, it means more expenses for the king's purse and for his subjects than the conquest is worth,"[164] but by the 15th century European walls fell with the utmost regularity.

Ing Kakaisaran Ottoman was also developing their own artillery pieces. Mehmed Penakluk (1432–1481) was determined to procure large cannons for the purpose of conquering Konstantinopel. Wong Hungaria Kutha produced for him a six-meter (20-foot) long cannon, which required hundreds of pounds of gunpowder to fire; during the actual pengepungan Konstantinopel the gun proved to be somewhat underwhelming.[165] However, dozens of other large cannons bombarded Constantinople's walls in their weakest sections for 55 days,[165] and despite a fierce defense, the city's fortifications were overwhelmed.

Changes to fortifications

Chinese angled bastion fort, 1638

As a response to gunpowder artillery, European fortifications began displaying architectural principles such as lower and thicker walls in the mid-1400s.[166] Cannon towers were built with artillery rooms where cannons could discharge fire from slits in the walls. However this proved problematic as the slow rate of fire, reverberating concussions, and noxious fumes produced greatly hindered defenders. Gun towers also limited the size and number of cannon placements because the rooms could only be built so big. Notable surviving artillery towers include a seven layer defensive structure built in 1480 at Fougères ing Brittany, and a four layer tower built in 1479 at Querfurth in Saxony.

The star fort, also known as the bastion fort, trace italienne, or renaissance fortress, was a style of fortification that became popular in Europe during the 16th century. The bastion and star fort was developed in Italy, where the Florentine engineer Giuliano da Sangallo (1445–1516) compiled a comprehensive defensive plan using the geometric bastian lan kebak trace italienne that became widespread in Europe.

The main distinguishing features of the star fort were its angle bastions, each placed to support their neighbor with lethal crossfire, covering all angles, making them extremely difficult to engage with and attack. Angle bastions consisted of two faces and two flanks. Artillery positions positioned at the flanks could fire parallel into the opposite bastion's line of fire, thus providing two lines of cover fire against an armed assault on the wall, and preventing mining parties from finding refuge. Meanwhile, artillery positioned on the bastion platform could fire frontally from the two faces, also providing overlapping fire with the opposite bastion. Overlapping mutually supporting defensive fire was the greatest advantage enjoyed by the star fort. As a result, sieges lasted longer and became more difficult affairs. By the 1530s the bastion fort had become the dominant defensive structure in Italy.

Outside Europe, the star fort became an "engine of European expansion,"[166] and acted as a force multiplier so that small European garrisons could hold out against numerically superior forces. Wherever star forts were erected the natives experienced great difficulty in uprooting European invaders.[166]

Ing China, Sun Yuanhua advocated for the construction of angled bastion forts ing kang Xifashenji so that their cannons could better support each other. Pejabat Han Yun lan Han Lin nyathet manawa meriam ing benteng persegi ora bisa nyangga saben sisih uga benteng benteng. Upayane kanggo mbangun benteng benteng lan asile durung mesthi. Ma Weicheng yasa loro bètèng bastian ing kabupatèné, sing mbantu a Qing mlebu ing taun 1638. Ing taun 1641, ana sepuluh benteng benteng ing kabupaten kasebut. Sadurunge benteng benteng bisa nyebar maneh, dinasti Ming ambruk ing taun 1644, lan umume dilalekake amarga wangsa Qing asring nyerang lan ora ana gunane.[171]

Meriam klasik

Pangembangan lan desain senjata ing Eropa wis nggayuh "klasik" ing taun 1480-an - luwih dawa, luwih entheng, luwih efisien, lan luwih akurat dibandhingake karo sadurunge sadurunge mung telung dekade sadurunge. Desain kasebut tetep ana, lan meriam ing taun 1480-an ora ana bedane lan kamiripan sing nggumunake telung abad mengko ing taun 1750-an. Suwene 300 taun suwene meriam klasik menehi moniker.[172]

Senapan klasik Eropa awal dituduhake karo rong meriam wiwit 1488 sing saiki disimpen ing plaza ing Neuchâtel, Swiss. Senjata Neuchâtel dawane 224 sentimeter, kanthi bolongan 6,2 sentimeter lan liyane rada luwih dawa, 252 sentimeter, kanthi ukuran bolong padha. Dheweke dibedakake karo senjata api lawas kanthi macem-macem perbaikan. Rasio dawa-kanggo-bolongan sing luwih dawa ngasilake luwih akeh energi ing tembakan, saengga proyektil bisa motret luwih adoh. Ora mung luwih suwe, uga luwih entheng amarga tembok laras digawe luwih tipis supaya bisa ngilangi panas luwih cepet. Dheweke uga ora butuh pitulung maneh saka colokan kayu kanggo mbukak amarga luwih pas ing antarane proyektil lan laras, nambah akurasi perang mesiu[173] - lan luwih elek amarga ana perkembangan kayata gunting bubuk lan tembakan wesi. Nalika bedhil kasebut tekan Tiongkok ing taun 1510-an, wong Tionghoa kesengsem banget, utamane amarga tong sing luwih dawa lan luwih tipis.[174]

Rong teori utami kanggo tampilan bedhil klasik kalebu pangembangan corning bubuk lan cara anyar kanggo casting bedhil.

Hipotesis corning negesake manawa tong luwih dawa minangka reaksi tumrap pangembangan bubuk mesiu. Wêdakakêna "korned" tetep luwih apik, amarga suda jubiné, nanging penembak uga nemokake manawa luwih kuat lan luwih gampang dimuat ing bedhil. Sadurunge dikonsumsi, bubuk mesiu uga bakal asring mlebu ing komponen konstitusi lan mula ora bisa dipercaya.[175] Reaksi bubuk mesiu sing luwih cepet cocok kanggo bedhil sing luwih cilik, amarga sing gedhe duwe kecenderungan retak, lan reaksi sing luwih kontrol ngidini bedhil gedhe duwe tembok sing luwih dawa lan luwih tipis.[176] Nanging, hipotesis corning wis dibantah kanthi rong sebab: Siji, para produsen bubuk mesthine luwih kuwatir ngrusak tinimbang efek bubuk mesiu ing bedhil; lan loro, dadi praktik wis ana ing Tiongkok (kanggo bahan peledak) wiwit taun 1370-an.[154]

Teori kapindho yaiku kunci kanggo nggawe pistol klasik bisa uga minangka metode casting gun nganti anyar.[160] Smith ngamati: "Potongan ordeansi sing isih ana ing wiwitan abad kaping 15 yaiku potongan gedhe kanthi ukuran bolong gedhe. Dheweke ora katon kaya bedhil lancip dawa.… Intine padha tabung sisi-sisi kanthi ujung sing rata. Katrangan kasebut bisa uga , yen dheweke ngetokake corak cilik kanthi cara dhasar tradisional, dene bedhil sing dawa lancip kasebut bakal moncong.… Mungkin iki minangka tandha "revolusi" nyata ing artileri. Sawise teknik nyemprotake kaluwihan karo para petugas, lan saiki durung jelas apa sing saiki dikuasai para pangadeg meriam, cara iki mbukak kanggo pengembangan artileri 'klasik'. "[160] Nanging, Smith dhewe ujar manawa ora jelas apa kaluwihan sing bakal diwenehake teknik iki, sanajan adopsi kasebut nyebar.[160]

• Artillerie abad kaping-16

• Culverin bajingan Prancis tanggal 1548, 85mm 300 cm 1076 kg.

• Kaloro bolongan abad kaping 15, sing siji saka wesi palsu, lan liyane saka tembaga.

• Abad kaping 18 Meriam Prancis

• Beda bubuk mesiu kornet, kanthi fungsi dhewe-dhewe

Wesi lan tembaga

Meriam logam komposit sing ditemokake karo Inggris ing Benteng Taku ing taun 1860

Ing saindenging abad kaping 15 lan 16 utamane ana rong jinis meriam manufaktur. Meriam wesi sing digawe lan meriam tembaga. Bedhil wesi kanthi struktural kasusun saka rong lapisan: tabung batang saka wesi sing diikat kanthi pas karo tali gelang wesi njaba. Nanging meriam perunggu dilebokake ing potongan sing padha karo lonceng. Teknik sing digunakake kanggo ngeculake meriam tembaga padha karo lonceng lan loro kasebut asring dianggep minangka perusahaan sing gegandhengan.

Meriam wesi lan tembaga duwe kaluwihan lan kekurangan. Meriam wesi palsu nganti sepuluh kaping luwih murah, nanging luwih stabil amarga alam sing dibangun. Sanajan tanpa nggunakake, meriam wesi bisa uga ora karat, dene meriam prunggu ora. Alasan liyane kanggo dominasi meriam prunggu yaiku daya tarik estetis. Amarga meriam penting banget kayata tampilan kekuwatan lan prestise, para penguasa seneng menehi meriam tembaga, sing bisa dipahat dadi desain mewah sing ngemot motif utawa simbol seni. Amarga kabeh sebab iki, meriam tembaga-tembaga dadi jinis sing disenengi ing pungkasan taun 1400an.

Meriam wesi komposit / tembaga kurang umum, nanging diprodhuksi kanthi jumlah akeh sajrone dinasti Ming lan Qing.[178] Meriam komposit wesi-tembaga sing diasilake luwih unggul tinimbang meriam wesi utawa tembaga ing akeh aspek. Dheweke luwih entheng, kuwat, tahan suwe, lan tahan tekanan explosive sing luwih intensif. Pengrajin Tionghoa uga nyoba karo varian liyane kayata meriam sing nampilake inti wesi kanthi eksterior besi cor. Sanajan luwih murah tinimbang mitra besi-tembaga, iki luwih murah lan luwih awet tinimbang meriam besi standar. Kaloro jinis kasebut sukses lan dianggep "kalebu sing paling apik ing saindenging jagad"[178] sajrone abad kaping 17. Teknik casting logam komposit Tiongkok cukup efektif supaya pejabat kekaisaran Portugis ngupayakake nggunakake tukang gunaman Tionghoa kanggo pabrik meriam ing Goa, supaya bisa menehi cara kanggo pabrik senjata Portugis.[178] Golongan Gujarat nyoba karo konsep sing padha ing taun 1545, paling ora nganggo basa Inggris ing taun 1580, lan wong Walanda ing taun 1629. Nanging upaya sing dibutuhake kanggo ngasilake senjata kasebut nyegah produksi massal. Eropa pancen dianggep minangka produk eksperimen, nyebabake sawetara sing isih urip potongan dina iki.[179][180] Saka meriam logam komposit saiki, ana 2 Inggris, 2 Walanda, 12 Gujarati, lan 48 saka jaman Ming-Qing.[181]

Arquebus lan musket

Loro prajurit ing sisih kiwa nggunakake arquebus, 1470.

Mekanisme matchlock serpentine.

Musketeer saka Wapenhandelingen van Roers saka Jacob van Gheyn, Musquetten ende Spiesen, (1608).

Arquebus minangka senjata api sing muncul ing Eropa lan Kekaisaran Ottoman ing wiwitan abad kaping 15. Jeneng kasebut asale saka tembung Jerman Hackenbüchse. Sanajan istilah kasebut arquebus ditrapake ing macem-macem bentuk senjata api wiwit abad kaping 15 nganti 17, asline digunakake kanggo nggambarake "bedhil nganggo prasangka kaya cangkang utawa lug ing ngisor permukaané, migunani kanggo ngencengi perang utawa barang liyane nalika nembak . " "Senjata pancing" iki minangka senjata pertahanan paling dhisik sing dipasang ing tembok kutha Jerman ing wiwitan taun 1400an, nanging ing pungkasan taun 1400-an wis dipindhah menyang senjata api genggam, kanthi varian sing luwih abot sing diarani "musket" sing dipecat saka dhukungan berbentuk Y muncul ing wiwitan taun 1500an.

Musket kasebut bisa nembus kabeh waja sing kasedhiya ing wektu kasebut, nggawe waja wis ilang, lan akibate musket sing abot uga. Sanajan ora ana bedane desain antara arquebus lan musket kajaba ukuran lan kekuwatan, nanging istilah kasebut musket sing isih digunakake nganti taun 1800-an. Sampeyan bisa uga ora akurat banget yen musket ana ing pabrike mung arquebus sing luwih gedhe. Paling ora, siji-sijine musket lan arquebus digunakake kanthi ganti kanggo nyebut gegaman sing padha, lan malah diarani "musket arquebus."[185] Komandan Habsburg ing pertengahan 1560-an tau nyebut muskets minangka "arquebus dobel." Definisi arquebus lan senjata api sing padha saengga wis cukup gumun amarga tembung kasebut ditrapake kanggo macem-macem senjata api uga entuk sawetara jeneng kaya hackbut, harquebus, schiopo, sclopus, tüfenk, tahu, matchlock, lan firelock. Ana sing ujar yen hackbut minangka cikal bakal arquebus.

Pacaran saka matchlock tampilan pertama mekanisme pemecatan dibantah. Referensi pertama panggunaan arquebuse (tüfek) dening Janissary korps saka Ottoman wadya bala tanggal mau saka 1394 nganti 1465. Nanging durung dingerteni manawa arquebuse utawa meriam cilik pungkasan taun 1444, nanging kasunyatan manawa didhaptar kapisah saka meriam ing persediaan abad pertengahan 15, nuduhake yen senjata api kasebut genggem.[195] Ing Eropa, a Simpenan pundhak, bisa uga inspirasi saka panah Simpenan,[196] ditambah menyang arquebus udakara taun 1470 lan tampilan mekanisme matchlock diwiwiti sawetara sadurunge taun 1475. Arquebus matchlock minangka senjata api pertama sing dilengkapi mekanisme pemicu. Iki uga dianggep dadi senjata api bahu portebel pertama.

Matchlock dadi istilah umum kanggo arquebus sawise ditambahake ing senjata api. Sadurunge ora ana matchlock, bedhil ditembak saka dhadha, diselehake ing sangisore lengen, dene lengen liyane nggawe pricker panas menyang bolongan tutul kanggo ngobong bubuk mesiu. Matchlock ngowahi iki kanthi nambah mekanisme penembakan sing kasusun saka rong bagean, match, lan kunci. Mekanisme kunci sing dicekel ing njepit yaiku tali irisan dawa nganti loro nganti telung kaki direndhem ing saltpeter, yaiku tandhingane. Sambungake menyang tuas kunci yaiku pemicu, sing nurunake pertandingan menyang wajan priming nalika ditarik, ngobong bubuk priming, nyebabake lampu kilat liwat bolongan tutul, uga ngobong bubuk mesiu ing njero tong, lan nyurung peluru kasebut metu .

Nalika matchlocks nyedhiyakake kaluwihan penting kanthi ngidini pangguna ngarahake senjata api nganggo tangan loro, uga angel digunakake. Supaya ora sengaja ngobong bubuk mesiu, pertandingan kasebut kudu dicopot nalika mbukak bedhil. Ing sawetara kedadean, pertandingan uga bakal dipateni, mula loro-lorone pertandingan kasebut terus murup. Iki kabukten rumit kanggo manuver amarga tangan loro diwajibake nyekel pertandingan kasebut nalika dicopot, saben pucuk ing saben tangan. Prosedur kasebut rumit banget supaya manual bor 1607 diterbitake dening Jacob de Gheyn ing Walanda nyathet 28 langkah kanggo nembak lan mbukak bedhil. Ing taun 1584 jenderal Ming Qi Jiguang nyipta lagu 11 langkah kanggo latihan prosedur ing irama: "Siji, resiki bedhil. Loro tuangake bubuk. Telung bubuk bubuk. Papat gulung pelet. Lima drive pelet mudhun. Nem dilebokake ing kertas (stopper). Pitu drive kertas mudhun. Wolu mbukak tutup flashpan. Sembilan tuang bubuk flash. Sepuluh tutup flashpan, lan jupuk sekring. Sewelas, rungokake sinyal, banjur bukak tutup flashpan. Ngarahake mungsuh, angkat senapan lan geni. "[203] Ngisi maneh bedhil sajrone abad kaping 16 udakara antara 20 detik nganti menit ing kahanan sing paling ideal.[204]

Arquebus dianggep dadi senjata api "pundhak" portebel sing pertama. Arquebus digunakake wiwit taun 1472 dening wong Spanyol lan Portugis ing Zamora. Kajaba iku, wong Kastil nggunakake arquebus uga ing taun 1476. Ing taun 1496 Philip Monch saka Palatinate nyipta ilustrasi Buch der Strynt un (d) Buchsse (n) ing bedhil lan "harquebus." Umume Mamluk padha konservatif nglawan penggabungan senjata bubuk mesiu. Nalika ngadhepi meriam lan arquebus sing digunakake dening Ottoman, mula banjur dikritik, "Gusti Allah ngipat-ipati wong sing nggawe, lan Gusti Allah ngipat-ipati wong sing ngobong Muslim karo dheweke." Penghinaan uga ditindakake marang wong-wong Ottoman amarga wis "nggawa contrivansi iki kanthi apik sing dirancang dening wong-wong Kristen Eropa nalika dheweke ora bisa nemoni tentara Muslim ing medan perang." Kajaba, musketeers lan infantri sing duwe keranjang tangan disengiti ing masarakat dening pasulayan satriya, malah nganti wayahe Don Quixote panganggit Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616).[208] Pungkasane Mamluk ing ngisor Qaitbay diperintah ing taun 1489 supaya nglatih panggunaan al-bunduq al-rasas (arquebus). Nanging, ing 1514 tentara Ottoman kanthi 12.000 prajurit sing nggunakake arquebus isih bisa ngusir pasukan Mamluk sing luwih gedhe. Arquebus wis dadi senjata infantri umum ing abad kaping 16 amarga regane murah - helm, tutup dada lan pike regane udakara telu lan seprapat ducat, nanging arquebus mung luwih saka siji ducat. Keuntungan liyane saka arquebus tinimbang peralatan lan senjata liyane yaiku wektu latihan cekak. Nalika busur bisa dadi tuan rumah sajrone pirang-pirang taun, arquebusier sing efektif bisa dilatih mung rong minggu. Miturut laporan taun 1571 dening Vincentio d'Alessandri, gegaman Persia kalebu arquebus "luwih unggul lan luwih alus tinimbang sing ana ing negara liya."

Ing wiwitan taun 1500-an, arquebus sing luwih gedhe sing diarani musket katon. Musket sing abot, sanajan rada kikuk kanggo nangani, mbutuhake istirahat garpu supaya bisa diobong kanthi bener, duwe kauntungan bisa nembus waja paling apik ing jarak 180 meter, waja biasa 365 meter, lan wong sing ora duwe gegaman 548 meter . Nanging, musket lan arquebus kanthi efektif diwatesi mung 90 nganti 185 meter tanpa dipikirake manawa waja amarga pancen akurat banget. Miturut sawetara sumber, musket mulus pancen ora bisa nggegirake target ukuran wong ngliwati tandha 73 meter. Nalika bedhil bedhil saiki wis ana ing alur sing dilebokake ing njero tong, iki dianggep minangka senjata spesialis lan jumlah winates. Ing sawetara aspek, iki nggawe musket smoothbore dadi gegaman luwih murah tinimbang busur. Contone, pamana Mamluk sing rata-rata bisa nggayuh target mung adoh saka 68 meter nanging bisa tetep nembak enem nganti wolung tembakan per menit. Yen dibandhingake, matchlocks abad nembelas nembak saben tembakan saben pirang-pirang menit, lan luwih sithik nalika njupuk kesalahan lan kesalahan sing kedadeyan nganti setengah wektu. Iki ora ateges senjata api ing abad kaping 16 luwih murah tinimbang gandhewa lan panah, amarga luwih becik nembus waja lan mbutuhake latihan sing kurang, nanging kekurangan musket kasebut nyata banget, lan ora nganti taun 1590-an ana kanggo bagean sing paling mandheg saka Wong Eropa perang. Iki bisa dadi konsekuensi saka tambah efektifitas perang musket amarga ana kobongan voli ing Eropa sing kaping pisanan ditrapake dening Walanda. Ing wektu iki penembake tentara Eropa tekan 40 persen pasukan infantri.[214]

Nalika keutamaan musket katon jelas, mula diadopsi kanthi cepet ing saindenging Eurasia, nganti ing taun 1560, sanajan ing China, para jenderal menehi pujian tumrap senjata anyar kasebut. Qi Jiguang, sawijining partisan keren sing misuwur, menehi pujian babagan efektifitas bedhil ing taun 1560:

Beda karo macem-macem jinis senjata api liyane. Kanthi kekuwatan bisa nembus waja. Ing akurasi, bisa nyerang tengah target, malah nganti tekan mata koin, yaiku ora mung kanggo pemotret sing luar biasa.… Arquebus [鳥 銃] minangka senjata sing kuat lan akurat banget, sanajan panah lan panah ora bisa cocog, lan… ora ana sing kuwat banget yen bisa mbela.[215]

Liyane Asia Wétan kakuwasan kayata Aku ora uga nganggo musket matchlock kanthi cepet. Khususé Đại Việt, dianggep Ming kanggo ngasilake matchlock paling maju ing saindenging jagad nalika abad kaping 17, malah uga senjata api Ottoman, Jepang, lan Eropa. Pengamat Eropa ing Perang Trịnh – Nguyễn uga cocog karo Ming ing keahlian nggawe matchlock dening wong Vietnam. Pasangan tandhing Vietnam diarani bisa nusuk pirang-pirang lapisan waja waja, mateni wong loro nganti lima wong kanthi siji tembakan, nanging uga nembak senjata kanggo kaliber kasebut.[216]

Kakaisaran bubuk mesiu

Ilustrasi dening Byam Shaw saka buku The Adventures of Akbar anggitane Flora Annie Steel. Iki nggambarake artileri.

Ing Kakaisaran bubuk mesiu umume nuduhake Islam Ottoman, Safavid lan Mughal kekaisaran.[217] Ukara kasebut pisanan digawe dening Marshall Hodgson ing judhul Buku 5 ("Kembang Kapindho: Kekaisaran Gunpowder Times") saka karya telung volume sing pengaruhe, Usaha Islam (1974).[218]

Hogdson ngetrapake istilah "kekaisaran bubuk mesiu" kanggo telung entitas politik Islam sing dikatutake kapisah saka konfederasi klan Turkik sing ora stabil lan geografis sing menang ing jaman pasca-Mongol. Dheweke ngarani "negara-negara patronage militer ing Periode Tengah mengko," sing nduweni telung ciri khas: pisanan, legitimasi ukum dinasti independen; nomer loro, konsepsi kabeh negara minangka pasukan militer siji; katelu, upaya kanggo nerangake kabeh sumber daya ekonomi lan budaya dhuwur minangka appanages kulawarga kepala militer.[219] Nyambung kekaisaran kasebut minangka tradhisi sing tuwuh "saka ide-ide kebesaran Mongol," nanging ide kasebut bisa diwasa lan nggawe kerajaan birokrasi sing stabil mung sawise senjata bubuk mesiu lan teknologi khusus entuk papan utama ing urip militer. "[220]

William H. McNeill luwih akeh ngembangake konsep kerajaan bubuk mesiu kanthi mbantah manawa negara-negara kaya ngono "bisa memonopoli artileri anyar, pejabat pusat bisa nggabungake wilayah sing luwih gedhe dadi kerajaan anyar, utawa sing nembe dikonsolidasi."[221]

Ing taun 2011 Douglas E. Streusand ngritik hipotesis Hodgson-McNeill Gunpowder-Empire, nyebutake ora nyenengake minangka panjelasan "ora cukup [akurat] utawa akurat," sanajan istilah kasebut tetep digunakake.[222] Masalah utama sing ditemokake karo teori Hodgson-McNeill yaiku akuisisi senjata api kayane ora ndhisiki akuisisi wiwitan wilayah sing dadi massa kritis kekaisaran saka telung kerajaan Islam modern awal, kajaba ing kasus Mughals . Kajaba iku, kayane komitmen karo aturan otokratik militer sadurunge menehi akuisisi senjata bubuk bubuk ing kabeh telung kasus kasebut.

Apa bubuk mesiu kasebut ana gandhengane karo eksistensi kekaisaran kasebut, ora bisa ditakokake manawa saben telu njupuk artileri lan senjata api ing wiwitan sejarah lan nggawe senjata kasebut minangka bagean integral saka taktik militer.

Kakaisaran Ottoman

Ora mesthi kapan Wong Ottoman wiwit nggunakake senjata api, nanging udur manawa wis nggunakake meriam wiwit Pertempuran Kosovo (1389) lan Nukap (1396) lan mesthine nalika taun 1420-an. Sawetara negesake manawa bedhil lapangan mung mlebu layanan sawise Perang Varna (1444) lan luwih mesthi digunakake ing Pertempuran Kaloro Kosovo (1448).[224] Arquebus tekan udakara 1425.

India lan Kekaisaran Mughal

Ing India, bedhil saka tembaga ditemokake saka Calicut (1504) lan Diu (1533). Ing abad kaping 17, wong-wong India nggawe macem-macem senjata api; bedhil gedhe khusus, dadi katon ing Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur lan Murshidabad. Gujarāt nyuplai alat asin Eropa kanggo digunakake ing perang bubuk mesiu nalika abad kaping 17.[227] Bengal lan Mālwa melu produksi uyah asin.[227] Walanda, Prancis, Portugis, lan Inggris digunakake Chāpra minangka pusat panyulingan uyah.[228]

Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), sing nyambut gawe Akbar sing Agung minangka insinyur mekanik, nggawe tembakan multi-gun awal. Senjata Shirazi sing nembak cepet duwe pirang-pirang laras bedhil sing murub meriam tangan diiseni bubuk mesiu.[229]

Roket Mysorean yaiku Wong india militèr gaman, sing pertama wesi-dicandhang roket sukses dikerahkan kanggo keperluan militer. Ing Mysorean tentara, ing sangisore Hyder Ali lan putrane Tipu Sultan, digunakake roket kanthi efektif nglawan Perusahaan India Timur Inggris nalika taun 1780an lan 1790an.[230][231]

Roket perang India minangka senjata hebat sadurunge roket kasebut digunakake ing Eropa. Dheweke duwe batang bam-boo, awak roket ditabuh ing rod, lan wesi. Dheweke diarahake menyang target lan dipecat kanthi nyambung sekring, nanging lintasan kasebut ora sengaja. Panggunaan tambang lan tambang tambang kanthi bledug bubuk bubuk wis diandharake sajrone Akbar lan Jahāngir.

Teknik sipil

Kanal

Bubuk bubuk digunakake kanggo teknik hidrolik ing Tiongkok ing taun 1541. Peledakan bubuk bubuk lan disusuli karo pengerukan detritus minangka teknik sing digunakake Chen Mu kanggo nambah Terusan Agung ing dalan banyu sing nyebrang Kali Kuning. Ing Eropa bubuk mesiu digunakake ing konstruksi Canal du Midi ing Prancis Kidul.[233] Wis rampung ing taun 1681 lan ana gandhengane karo Mediterania segara karo Atlantik kanthi 240 km kalen lan 100 kunci. Konsumen bubuk ireng liyane sing penting yaiku Terusan Erie ing New York, dawane 585 km lan mbutuhake wolung taun kanggo rampung, wiwit taun 1817.[233]

Mining

Sadurunge bubuk mesiu ditrapake kanggo teknik sipil, ana rong cara kanggo mbobol watu gedhe, kanthi kerja keras utawa kanthi panas kanthi geni gedhe banjur diikuti kanthi cepet. Cathetan paling wiwitan kanggo nggunakake bubuk mesiu ing tambang asale saka Hongaria ing taun 1627.[234] Iki dikenalake menyang Inggris ing taun 1638 dening para penambang Jerman, lan sawise iku cathetan akeh.[235] Nganti penemuan ing sekring keamanan dening William Bickford ing taun 1831, praktik kasebut mbebayani banget.[236][233] Alasan bebaya liyane yaiku asap kandhel lan risiko ngobong gas sing gampang kobong nalika digunakake ing tambang batu bara.

Konstruksi trowongan

Wêdakakêna ireng uga digunakake banget ing konstruksi sepur. Wiwitane ril sepur ngetutake kontur ing tanah kasebut, utawa nyebrang lemah ngisor kanthi nggunakake jembatan lan jejambat, nanging mengko kereta api nggunakake stek lan terowongan. Siji 2400 kaki saka 5,4 mi Tunnel Kothak ing Railway Kulon Gedhe baris antarane London lan Bristol dikonsumsi a ton bubuk mesiu saben minggu luwih saka rong taun.[233] Dawane 12,9 km Tunnel Mont Cenis rampung ing 13 taun wiwit taun 1857, nanging kanthi bubuk ireng, kemajuane mung 25 cm sedina nganti diciptakake latihan pneumatik nyepetake karya kasebut.

Amerika Serikat

Perang Revolusi

Sajrone Perang Revolusi Amerika, sawetara guwa ditambang guwa garam kanggo nggawe bubuk mesiu nalika pasokan saka Eropa embargo. Abigail Adams kondhang uga nggawe bubuk mesiu ing peternane kulawarga ing Massachusetts.[237]

New York Panitia Keamanan ngasilake sawetara karangan babagan nggawe bubuk mesiu sing dicithak ing taun 1776.[238]

Perang Sipil

Sajrone Perang Sipil Amerika, Inggris India minangka sumber utama uyah kanggo pabrik bubuk mesiu kanggo Tentara serikat. Pasokan iki diancam dening pamrentah Inggris sajrone Trent Affair, nalika pasukan angkatan laut Union nyetop kapal Inggris, RMS Trent, lan ngilangi loro diplomat Konfederasi. Pamrentah Inggris nanggapi sebagian kanthi mungkasi kabeh ekspor garam menyang Amerika Serikat, ngancam sumber daya produksi bubuk. Ora suwe sawise iku, kahanan dirampungake lan diplomat Konfederasi dibebasake.

Angkatan Laut Union mblokade sisih kidul Negara Gabungan, sing nyuda jumlah bubuk mesiu sing bisa diimpor saka jaban rangkah. Konfederasi Biro Nitre lan Mining dibentuk kanggo ngasilake bubuk mesiu kanggo tentara lan angkatan laut saka sumber daya domestik. Nitre[239] yaiku ejaan inggris "Niter". Nalika karbon lan belerang gampang kasedhiya ing sisih kidul, kalium nitrat asring diprodhuksi saka Kalsium nitrat ditemokake ing rereget guwa, lantai kandhang tembakau lan kios lumbung ing papan liya. Sawetara guwa ditambang, lan para pria lan bocah lanang sing kerja ing guwa kasebut diarani "kethek peter", niru istilah angkatan laut"kethek bubuk"sing digunakake kanggo bocah lanang sing nggawa bubuk mesiu nganggo prau.[240]

Ing tanggal 13 November 1862, pamrentah Konfederasi ngiklanake ing Kurir Saben dina Charleston kanggo 20 utawa 30 "pria Negro sing bisa awake dhewe" bisa kerja ing kasur nitre anyar ing Ashley Ferry, SC Tempat tidur nitre minangka persegi panjang gedhe pupuk kandang lan jerami, dibasahi saben minggu kanthi cipratan, "banyu kotoran", lan cairan saka privies, cesspools lan saluran, lan diuripake kanthi rutin. Proses kasebut dirancang kanggo ngasilake uyah asin, bahan bubuk mesiu, sing dibutuhake tentara Konfederasi sajrone Perang Sipil. Wong Kidul kepencut banget kanggo alat asin kanggo bubuk mesiu, mula ana pejabat Alabama dilaporake nempatake iklan koran sing njaluk isi pot kamar disimpen. Ing musim salju taun 1863, akeh wong sing dijaluk budak arep diekstrak saka guwa gedhe ing Barstow County, Ga., Ing kana kerja kanthi obor ing kahanan sing surem, nggawa lan ngolah "kotoran peter" sing diarani ,. Ing South Carolina, ing wulan April 1864, pamrentah Konfederasi nyewa 31 wong sing diperbudak kanggo kerja ing Ashley Ferry Nitre Works.[241]

Nolak

Setengah pungkasan abad kaping 19 nyipta penemuan nitrogliserin, nitrocellulose lan bubuk tanpa asap sing banjur ngganti bubuk mesiu tradisional ing aplikasi sipil lan militer.[Kutipan dibutuhake]

Deleng uga

Cathetan

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2. ^ a b c d "Sejarah bubuk mesiu". Dijupuk 14 Oktober 2016.
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5. ^ Andrade 2016, s. 30.
6. ^ Andrade 2016, s. 16.
7. ^ a b c Andrade 2016, s. 31.
8. ^ 天佑 初 ， 王茂 章 征 安仁义 于 润州 ， 洎 城 陷 ， 中 十余 创 ， 以 功 迁 左 先锋 都尉。 从 攻 豫章 （（郑） 璠 以(Terjemahan Kasar: Sajrone wiwitan Tianyou Era (904–907), Zheng Fan ngetutake Wang Maozhang ing kampanye Runzhou, yaiku dijaga karo pemberontak An Renyi, dheweke cilaka parah nalika dicekel, amarga asile dipromosekake dadi Jenderal Muda Kiri Vanguard. Ing kampanye Yuchang, dheweke mrentah pasukane kanggo nyurung "geni mabur" ing kutha sing dikepung, sawise gerbang kutha Longsha diobong, dheweke nuntun pasukane mlayu ing geni lan mlebu kutha kasebut, awake hangus, amarga asile dipromosekake dadi Perdana Menteri Inspektorat.) Cathetan Sembilan Karajan ch . 2
9. ^ Crosby, Alfred W. (2002). Thrilling Fire: Teknologi Projectile Liwat Sejarah. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. hlm. 100-103. ISBN 0-521-79158-8.
10. ^ a b c d e Andrade 2016, s. 32.
11. ^ a b c d Andrade 2016, s. 34.
12. ^ a b c Andrade 2016, s. 35.
13. ^ a b c d e f g Andrade 2016, s. 50.
14. ^ a b c d Andrade 2016, s. 38.
15. ^ a b c Andrade 2016, s. 39.
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17. ^ Andrade 2016, s. 41.
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